CONTROL SYSTEMS

MATHEMATICAL MODELING

NTTF
 Introduction
• Architects and structural engineers carry out
extensive stress analysis on proposed designs
and create architectural models.
• Automobile body designers work with clay
models.
• Hydraulic engineers and shipbuilders carry out
extensive modeling of a proposed design,
followed by physical model testing.

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 Introduction
• A control system is conceived to ensure that
some dynamic variable maintains a desire state
with respect to time.
• Before this control system constructed or
assembled, it has to be designed and analyzed
for operation in the field!
• After a control system is in operation, it
continues to require tuning and operational
analysis from time to time.
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 Introduction
• It is thus necessary to develop a technique for
the purpose of analysis, design, and tuning of
control system & Transfer functions are used
for analyzing the operation and performance of
closed-loop.-control systems.
• The transfer function of a control system
depends on the characteristics of its
components (or subsystems) and also on the
way these components are connected together.

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 Introduction
• Behavior of some of these components such as
electrical resistors and mechanical springs, can be
described by linear algebraic expressions, whereas
the majority of the components, such as inductors and
capacitors, require integral or derivative terms to
properly model their behavior.
• A differential equation is required to model a simple
series electrical circuit containing a resistor, a
capacitor, and an inductor.
• From this differential equation, a transfer function
can be developed, which completely describes its
dynamic behavior
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 The mathematical model
• The mathematical model for an element or a
system is an equation or set of equations that
define the relationship between the input and
output (variables).
• Operational behavior of an element depends
on its characteristics. For a system, its
behavior is dependent not only on its
components, but also on how these
components are linked together.

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 Example
• Ohm's law describes the relationship between
current and voltage for a resistor. In other
words, it can be stated that Ohm's law is a
mathematical model for a resistor.
– voltage = resistance x current
– V = RI

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 Nonlinear Behavior
• Even though a number of physical components
exhibit linear relationships between input and output,
when viewed over a wide operating range these
components exhibit nonlinear relationships.
• Consider the case of a mechanical spring. The
relationship between applied spring force and
resultant deflection (extension or compression) is
expressed as a linear equation.
– force = spring stiffness x deflection
– F = K x ΔL

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 Nonlinear Behavior
• But when the spring is subjected to a large
amount of compression force, the spring seems
to reach the limit of compression, with coils
coming close to each other.
• As this happens, the linear relationship
between the applied force and resultant
deflection no longer exists.
• If the force is further increased, the coils are
squeezed together with no further increase in
deflection.
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 Spring deflection
• It can be said that
the spring has
reached the
saturation limit.
Graphically, this
can be shown as
in the Figure.

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 Nonlinear Behavior
• In our study of (classical) control systems, we assume
that all elements, subsystems, and even complete
systems can be described by linear algebraic and/or
differential equations.
• ‘This will be true’ only if every element is operated
over a relatively narrow range of its entire span.
• Thus, the preceding spring, even though it exhibits
nonlinear behavior at the extreme deflection, can be
considered to be linear over the middle (smaller)
range.

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 Operational amplifiers
• Operational amplifiers also exhibit a similar behavior.
• Output voltage of an amplifier (say a noninverting
amplifier) is directly proportional to the applied input
voltage.
• This is true for all small-signal applications.
• On the other hand, if the input-signal amplitude is
sufficiently large or if the amplifier gain is set too
high, the output voltage can reach the saturation limit
(dictated by power supply), and a linear relationship
no longer exists.

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 Nonlinear Behavior
• It is assumed throughout the rest of our course
that every element can be described by a linear
model.
• This may be an inherent characteristic of the
element, or it may be substantiated by an
assumption that operation is over a small and
linear range of the element.

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 The Transfer Function
• The transfer function of an element or a
system is an s-domain expression describing
the relationship that exists between input and
output variables, assuming that all initial
conditions are zero.

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 Example
• A mathematical model of a resistor element
describing the relationship between current
flow through it and the voltage applied across
it is fairly simple and is a numerical constant
(R).
• Now consider a series RC circuit, where it is
desired to express the relation between
capacitor voltage Vc (output) and voltage
applied to circuit e (input).

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 Example
• This relation is expressed through a differential
equation,

– where both Vc and e are functions of time.

• It is not possible to isolate the capacitor voltage Vc
from the differential equation, and thus it is not
feasible to come up with a mathematical model
directly linking the output and input variables using
time-variable terms vc(t) and e (t).

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 Example
• But this relationship can be easily expressed
using the s-domain terms Vc(s)and E(s).

• In other words, output (capacitor) voltage in a

series RC circuit is related to input voltage
through the model 1/ (RCs + 1); also known as
the transfer function of the circuit.

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 Example

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 Transfer function
• In a circuit there are several variables that may
be of interest.
• Before proceeding further, one and only one
output variable has to be decided up on.
• A mathematical expression (usually a
differential equation) can then be set up.
• Laplace transforms are applied to this
differential equation, and a transfer function
linking the desired output variable and the
input variable can then be obtained.
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 Transfer function
• The derivation of a transfer function for a
system depends on the desired output variable.
• It is possible to obtain multiple transfer
functions for a system relating different input
and output variables.
• Fortunately, in many control systems, only one
output variable is of concern.
• Hence a single transfer function is needed.

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 Electrical Networks
• A passive electrical system can contain a
number of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
• If possible, all similar components can be
lumped together as a single equivalent
component for the purpose of analysis.
• It is important that circuit operation remain
unaffected by the lumped-parameter approach.
• Otherwise the simplified model is incorrect
and the components cannot be lumped
together.
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 Resistor
• Current i (amperes) and voltage v (volts)
through a resistor R (ohms) are governed by
Ohm's law.
• v = Ri

• The corresponding transfer functions are as

shown

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• Resistor TF current versus voltage

• Resistor TF voltage versus current.

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 Capacitor
• Current i (amperes) and voltage v (volts)
through a capacitor C (farads) are governed by
the following:

• Because integral and derivative terms are

involved, Laplace transformation is applied.

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 Capacitor transfer functions

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 Inductor
• Current i (amperes) and voltage v (volts)
through an inductor L (henrys) are governed
by the following

• Applying Laplace transformation to eliminate

integral and derivative terms gives

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 Inductor transfer functions

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 Series RC Circuit

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• Series RC Circuit
– Figure shows a series RC circuit.
– Initially, there is no current flow in the Circuit and the switch is in the
open position, as shown.
– At time t=0, the switch is placed in the closed position and voltage e is
applied.
– Current starts to build up in the circuit and starts charging the
capacitor.
– Eventually, the capacitor is fully charged and full voltage appears
across it.
– An equation can be developed that fully describes the capacitor voltage
(or current in the circuit) from start to final steady-state value.

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• The voltage in the circuit at time t is given by
– capacitor voltage + resistor voltage = applied voltage
– vc + vr= e
• The transfer function depends upon the desired output
variable.
• Two separate transfer functions will be developed:
one for capacitor voltage and the other for resistor
current.
• Capacitor Voltage:
– Because voltage across resistor is not a desired quantity, it
needs to be replaced with a term containing a reference to
capacitor voltage.

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• Capacitor Voltage:
– Expanding the resistor voltage in terms of current
gives vc+ Ri= e
– Capacitor current i is same as the current through
the resistor.

– This differential equation fully describes the

behavior of capacitor voltage upon application of
an external voltage e.

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• Capacitor Voltage: Transfer Function:
– By taking the Laplace transform of both sides of the
equation and simplifying, a transfer function of the RC
circuit can be obtained.

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• Capacitor Voltage: Transfer Function:
– Using the transfer function, a black box approach
can be developed, where output (capacitor) voltage
can be determined for any applied input voltage

• Resistor Current
– The transfer function related to current in the
circuit can be developed similarly.
– Again starting with an equation for voltage across
the circuit, vc +vr= e

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• Resistor Current
– Here the variable of interest is the current through
the resistor.
– Neither the resistor voltage across R nor the
capacitor voltage, vc, is the desired variable; both
need to be replaced with terms containing circuit
current.
– Capacitor voltage is related to capacitor current
through

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• Resistor Current
– Substituting it in the equation,

– This differential equation fully describes the

current flow in the circuit from time t = 0 to
steady-state condition upon application of an
external voltage e.
– Taking the Laplace transform of both sides of the
equation and simplifying to develop the transfer
function gives

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• Resistor Current: Transfer Function

– This transfer function allows the output current to be

determined at any instant as a result of an applied (input)
voltage

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 Series RL Circuit

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• Series RL Circuit
– Figure shows a series RL circuit.
– Initially, there is no current flow in the circuit and
the switch is in open position as shown.
– At time t = 0, the switch is placed in the closed
position and voltage e is applied.
– Current starts to increase from an initial condition
of 0 A.

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 – It eventually reaches a maximum value and
remains in this steady state condition.
– An equation relating inductor voltage (or current in
the circuit), from start to final steady-state value,
can be developed
– Equating the voltage drops in the circuit gives
• inductor voltage + resistor voltage = applied voltage
• vL + vR = e
• Inductor Voltage
– The term vL will be retained, whereas the vR term
will be changed to relate to inductor voltage.

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• Inductor Voltage cont..
– Expanding the vR term, vL+ Ri = e
– Since the resistor current is same as the inductor
current and inductor current is related to inductor
voltage through

– substituting the value of current i gives

– This integral equation describes the behavior of

inductor voltage upon application of an external
voltage e.
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• Inductor Voltage: Transfer Function
– By taking the Laplace transform of both sides of
the equation and simplifying

Ls
V L( s ) = X E (s)
Ls + R

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• Inductor Voltage: Transfer Function
Ls
= TF
Ls + R

– This transfer function relates inductor voltage to

the applied input voltage

Applied voltage E(s) Inductor voltage VL(s)

Ls
Ls + R

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