ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT

ANAM QAMAR (ROLL NO:09) MADIHA ZUBERI (ROLL NO: 25)

SARWAT FATIMA (ROLL NO: 56)

SHAYAN ASIF ABASSI (ROLL NO: 58) USAMA KHANZADA (ROLL NO: 72) ZOHRA SALIM (ROLL NO: 81)

 Your

attitude, not your aptitude, will determine your altitude. ZIG ZAGLAR

An attitude is a mental state involving

beliefs, feelings, values and dispositions to act in a certain way. It can further be understood as a learned predisposition to respond consistently in a positive or

negative manner towards different aspects

of the world

Attitudes lead to behavior More feasible to ask questions on attitudes than to observe and interpret behavior Large capacity for diagnosis and explanation

Attitudes directly affect decisions and these in turn, directly affect behavior.

Attitude

Action/ Behavior

COGNITIVE ATTITUDE INCLUDES: Memories. Evaluations. Beliefs about the properties of the object.

AFFECTIVE ATTITUDE INCLUDES: Feelings. Intuitions. Values and Emotions towards the object .

BEHAVIORAL ATTITUDE INCLUDES: Behavioral Intentions towards an object.

EXAMPLE: If a person says that he likes LAYS CHIPS because they are tasty & crispy and always eats them, the statement comprises all these three components of an attitude.

The attitude-behavior relation is not straightforward but they can be linked. Behavior can influence attitude. EXAMPLE A product or service usage will be maximum if the person develops a positive attitude towards it. The converse is also true Attitudes of consumers towards products that they have never tried will be neutral When attitudes are developed based on actual trial and experience of a product, attitudes predict behavior effectively

Business researchers treat attitudes as hypothetical constructs due to their complexity & the fact that they are inferred from the measurement data not actually observe. Attitude provides researchers insights about behavior.

Marketers attempt to change existing attitudes to attract people and increase market value. For this, they resort to three major tactics: Altering existing beliefs about a product. Changing attitudes by changing the importance of beliefs. adding new beliefs

Measurement

Standardized process of assigning numbers or other symbols to certain characteristics of objects of interests according to pre-specified rules

Characteristics for Standardization

One-to-one correspondence between the symbol and the characteristic in the object that is being measured

Rules for assignment should be invariant over time and the objects being measured

Scaling

Process of creating a range on which objects are located according to the amount of the measured characteristic that the object possesses.

Type of Measurement Scale Nominal

Types of Attitude Scale

Rules for Assigning Number

Typical Application

Statistics / Statistical Tests

Dichotomous yes or no scales.

Objects are either identical or different

Classification (by sex, geographic are, social class)

Percentages, mode / chi -square

Ordinal or Rank Order

Comparative, Rank order, Itemized Category, Paired Comparison Likert, Thurstone, Stapel, Associative Semantic-Differential

Objects are greater or smaller

Rankings (preference, class standing)

Percentile, median, rank-order correlation / Friedman ANOVA

Interval

Intervals between adjacent ranks are equal

Index numbers, temperature scales, attitude measures

Mean, standard deviation, product moment correlations / t-tests, ANOVA, regression, factor analysis

Ratio

Certain scales with special instructions

There is a meaningful zero, so comparison of absolute magnitudes is possible

Sales, incomes, units produced, costs, age

Geometric and harmonic mean, coefficient of variation

Numbers identify and classify objects

No ordering or spacing are implied

Only possible arithmetic operation is a count of each category

Examples:
Players in a football team Colors of traffic light

Gender

Objects are ranked in order Numbers indicate the relative position of objects but not the magnitude of difference Arithmetic operations are limited to statistics such as median or mode

Examples:
Result of 100 meter dash Ranking of largest fast food companies

Object is measured on a continuum

Arbitrary zero point

Differences between objects can be compared Entire range of statistical operations can be employed (mean, correlation, ANOVA, regression) Examples:
Temperature Attitudes

Interval scale with fixed zero point Ratio of scale values can be computed Examples:
Weight, length
Age Store sales Market shares

Present a respondent with a continuum of numbered categories that represent the range of possible attitude adjustments Single item or multiple item scales

Attitude scales exist for each measurement type The rating scale (interval data) is the most common type of attitude scale

Respondents rate objects by placing a mark at appropriate position on a line running from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other. Easy to construct

How would you rate Sears as a department store? Version 1: Probably the worst -------------------------------------------- Probably the best Version 2: Probably the worst -------------------------------------------- Probably the best 0 2 4 6 8 10

Only have one item to measure a construct

Itemized-category scale is most widely used by marketing researchers

Other single item scales
Comparative
Rank-order Pictorial Constant sum

Scales in which the respondent selects from a limited number of categories

What is your overall satisfaction with McDonalds Hamburgers?

Very satisfied Quite Satisfied Somewhat satisfied

satisfied

Not at all

Scale in which the respondent compares one item with another or a group of items against each other and ranks them

Respondents allocate a fixed number of rating points among several objects to reflect relative preference

Divide 100 points among the following attributes of a PC Clock Speed: Hard drive size: RAM size: Price: 30 20 10 40

Various categories of the scale are depicted pictorially

Format must be comprehensible to respond and allow accurate response

Example: The taste of Honey Munch Cereal is:

Number of Scale Categories

2 to 15

Strength of the Anchors

colorful vs. very colorful vs. extremely colorful

Labeling of the Categories

no labels vs. some labels vs. all labels

Balance of a Scale
balanced vs. unbalanced

Developed to measure a sample of beliefs toward the attitude objects and combine the set of answers into an average score Multiple item Scales Likert Semantic Differential Stapel Associative Scaling

Requires respondent to indicate degree of agreement or disagreement with a variety of statements related to the attitude object
Typically used for intangible constructs. Each item (statement) measures some aspect of the common construct. Scores on individual items are summed to give total score for respondents

Satisfaction survey for a bank:

Strongly Strongly Neutral Agree Disagree Disagree Agree

1. The bank offers courteous service 2. The bank has convenient locations 3. The bank has convenient hours 4. The bank offers low interest rate loans

Together, the 4 items constitute the scale

This is a single item

Assign numbers to categories 1 2 3 5 Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree

4
Strongly Agree

Neutral

2. Compute results: a) for each item compute mean across respondents (e.g. the average score for all respondents for item 1 is 3.5) b) for all items compute mean for each respondent (e.g. the average satisfaction score for respondents 1 is 3.0)

Respondents rate each attribute object on a number of five or seven-point rating scales bounded by polar adjectives or phrases
With bipolar scale, the midpoint is a neutral point Used for image analysis, profile analysis

The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning. SEARS IS: Powerful Unreliable Modern

--:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak --:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned

The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left side of the scale and sometimes at the right. This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly those with very positive or very negative attitudes, to mark the right- or left-hand sides without reading the labels. Individual items on a semantic differential scale may be scored on either a -3 to +3 or a 1 to 7 scale.

Pairs of objects or phrases must be meaningful in market being studied and often correspond to product/service attributes Avoid "halo" effect by placing negative pole on either side Category increments are treated as interval scales so group mean values can be computed for each object on each scale May also be analyzed as a summated rating scale

Profile Analysis

Application of semantic differential scale

Plot mean ratings of each object on each scale for visual comparison

Overall comparison of brands hard to grasp with many brands and attributes
Not all attributes are independent

The Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories numbered from -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero). This scale is usually presented vertically.

SEARS
+5 +4 +3 +2 +1 HIGH QUALITY -1 -2 -3 -4X -5 +5 +4 +3 +2X +1 POOR SERVICE -1 -2 -3

-4
-5

The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in the same way as semantic differential data.

Jovan Musk for Men is Extremely good Very good Good Bad Very bad Extremely bad

Jovan Musk for Men is Extremely good Very good Good Somewhat good Bad Very Bad

Respondents select a point on a graphic continuum anchored at the extremes

The cumulative scale or Guttman scale measures to what degree a person has a positive or negative attitude to something. It makes use of a series of statements that are growing or descending in how positive or negative a person is towards the subject. If for instance on a scale with seven statements the respondent agrees with the fifth statement, it implies that he or she also agrees with the first four statements, but not with statement number six and seven.

- Paired comparison scales ask a respondent to pick

one of two objects from a set based upon a given criterion

Example - Which brand do you prefer? ___ Coca-Cola ___ Pepsi ___ Pakola ___ Pepsi ___ Coca-Cola ___ Seven-Up ___ Pakola ___ Seven-Up

In the Q-sort method, the judge or evaluator is given a set of statements or items previously developed or fixed upon. This set of statements constitutes the entire vocabulary the judge is permitted to employ. A language, however, is more than a vocabulary; it requires a grammar as well. In order to complete the requirements for comparability of descriptions, we must ensure that this vocabulary is used, at least formally, in identical ways.

Example: Personality & Psychology Assessment Tests

A forced-choice rating scale will bias results by eliminating the undecideds and/or those with no opinion. Some researchers will purposely leave out the response choice of "undecided," "no opinion," "uncertain," or "don't know." This approach may be reasonable when the researcher has good reason to believe that virtually all subjects have an opinion and you do not want them to "cop out" by indicating they are uncertain. What happens if many subjects are indeed undecided and we do not allow them the option of no opinion? Most will probably select a rating from the middle of the scale, e.g., "average" or "fair." This will cause two biases: (a) it will appear that more subjects have opinions than actually do (b) the mean and median will be shifted toward the middle of the scale. (The "undecided" category is not part of the scale.)

Determine clearly what you are going to measure Generate as many items as possible Ask experts in the field to evaluate the initial pool of items Determine the type of attitudinal scale to be used Include some items that will help in the validation of the scale Administer the items to an initial sample Evaluate and refine the items Finally, optimize the scale length

1) Other relatively stable characteristics of the individual that influence the test score, such as intelligence, social desirability, and education. 2) Short-term or transient personal factors, such as health, emotions, and fatigue. 3) Situational factors, such as the presence of other people, noise, and distractions. 4) Sampling of items included in the scale: addition, deletion, or changes in the scale items. 5) Lack of clarity of the scale, including the instructions or the items themselves. 6) Mechanical factors, such as poor printing, overcrowding items in the questionnaire, and poor design. 7) Administration of the scale, such as differences among interviewers. 8) Analysis factors, such as differences in scoring and statistical analysis.

Central tendency error refers to a type of rating error in which a rater consistently rates all employees in the middle of the scale, regardless of their actual levels of performance. EXAMPLE: In performance appraisals or recruitment interviews, tendency of managers and interviewers to rate all or most of the employees or interviewees as average.

Linenacy error : A systematic error where pieces of data are consistently overly positive. This is usually due to the researchers tendency to be too positive or tolerant or shortcomings in the research. EXAMPLE: A manager or interviewer rates an employee or the candidate too positively, causing a performance appraisal or interview bias.

Halo effect The halo effect is a term used to describe how a manager can be influenced by a single or outstanding employee characteristic, clouding his judgment on the employee's other traits. The halo effect can impair judgment to such a degree that hiring decisions are negatively affected and the company suffers. The employee pool can end up being one-dimensional rather than comprised of people with multiple layers of talent and ability.

Validity
An attitude measure has validity if it measures what it

is supposed to measure Face Validity

The extent to which the content of a measurement scale

appears to tap all relevant facets of the construct Construct Validity

A scale evaluation criterion that relates to the

underlying question "what is the nature of the underlying variable or construct measured by the scale?"

Convergent Validity
A form of construct validity that represents the

association between the measured construct and measures of other constructs with which the construct is related on theoretical grounds

Discriminant Validity
A form of construct validity that represents the extent

to which the measured construct is not associated with which the construct is related on theoretical grounds

Reliability
The consistency with which the measure produces the same

results with the same or comparable population

Sensitivity
Extent to which ratings provided by a scale are able to

discriminate between the respondents who differ with respect to the construct being measured
Reliable? Valid? Generalizable?

Relevancy
Relevance = reliability * validity

Responses Can Be Affected by

Low literacy and educational levels

Culture in a country Semantic differential scale is closest to pan cultural scale Adapting response formats, particularly calibration, for specific countries and cultures their

My attitude is that if you push me towards something that you think is a weakness, then I will turn that perceived weakness into a strength. MICHAEL JORDAN