1

is defined as the spontaneous

disintegration of certain atomic
nuclei accompanied by the
emission of alpha particles,
beta particles or gamma
radiation.
CHAPTER 14: Radioactivity
(2 Hours)
Learning Outcome:
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
Explain ,
+
, and decays.
State decay law and use



Define activity, A and decay constant, .
Derive and use


Define half-life and use
2
14.1 Radioactive decay (1 1/2 hours)
N
dt
dN
=
t
e N N

=
0
t
e A A

=
0
OR

2 ln
2 / 1
= T
14.1 Radioactive decay
Radioactivity is a phenomenon in which an unstable nuclei
undergoes spontaneous decay as a result of which a
new nucleus is formed and energy in the form of
radiation is released
The radioactive decay is a spontaneous reaction that is
unplanned, cannot be predicted and independent of
physical conditions (such as pressure, temperature) and
chemical changes.
This reaction is random reaction because the probability
of a nucleus decaying at a given instant is the same for all
the nuclei in the sample.
Radioactive radiations are emitted when an unstable
nucleus decays. The radiations are alpha particles, beta
particles and gamma-rays.
3
14.1.1 Alpha particle (o)
An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons.
It is identical to a helium nucleus and its symbol is


It is positively charged particle and its value is +2e with mass
of 4.002603 u.
When a nucleus undergoes alpha decay it loses four nucleons,
two of which are protons, thus the reaction can be represented
by general equation below:




4
He
4
2

4
2
OR
(Parent)
(o particle)
(Daughter)
X
A
Z
+ Y
4
2

A
Z

+
Q
He
4
2
Alpha particles can penetrate a sheet of paper.
5
parent
daughter
particle
Q + + He Pb Po
4
2
214
82
218
84
Q + + He Ra Th
4
2
226
88
230
90
Q + + He Rn Ra
4
2
222
86
226
88
Q + + He Th U
4
2
234
90
238
92
Examples of o decay :
6

Two types :
a) Beta minus ,
-

b) Beta plus ,
+

A beta particle has the same mass and charge as an

electron.

Beta particles can penetrate a few mm of Al and their

velocity is high (v ~c).

14.1.2 Beta particle ()
7
Beta minus (

)-negatively charge.

Also called as negatron or electron.

Symbol;

-
or

It is produced when one of the neutrons in the parent

nucleus decays into a proton, an electron and an
antineutrino.

e
0
1
0
1
or |
massless, neutral
8

In beta-minus decay, an electron is emitted, thus the mass

number does not charge but the charge

of the parent nucleus
increases by one as shown

below :
(Parent) (| particle) (Daughter)
X
A
Z
+ Y
A
1 Z +

+
Q
e
0
1

Examples of | minus decay :

Q e Pa Th
0
1
234
91
234
90
+ +

Q e U Pa
0
1
234
92
234
91
+ +

Q e Po Bi
0
1
214
84
214
83
+ +

e
0
1
0
1
or |
9
Beta plus (
+
)- positively charge.

Also called as positron or antielectron.

Symbol;

+
or

It is produced when one of the protons in the parent

nucleus decays into a neutron, a positron and
a neutrino.

massless,neutral
10

In beta-plus decay, a positron is emitted, this time the

charge of the parent nucleus decreases by one as shown
below :
(Parent)
(Positron)
(Daughter)
X
A
Z
+ Y
A
1 Z

+
Q e
0
1
Q v e C N + + +
0
1
12
6
12
7

Example of | plus decay :

14.1.3 Gamma ray ()
Gamma rays are high energy photons (electromagnetic
radiation).
Emission of gamma ray does not change the parent nucleus
into a different nuclide, since neither the charge nor the
nucleon number is changed.
A gamma ray photon is emitted when a nucleus in an excited
state makes a transition to a ground state.
Examples of decay are :




It is uncharged (neutral) ray and zero mass.
The differ between gamma-rays and x-rays of the same
wavelength only in the manner in which they are produced;
gamma-rays are a result of nuclear processes, whereas x-
rays originate outside the nucleus.
11
+ +
-
He Pb Po
4
2
214
82
218
84
+ +

-
e U Pa
0
1
234
92
234
91
+
-
Ti Ti
208
81
208
81
Gamma ray
14.1.4 Comparison of the properties between alpha
particle, beta particle and gamma ray.
Table 14.1 shows the comparison between the radioactive
radiations.
12
Alpha Beta Gamma
Charge
Deflection by
electric and
magnetic fields
Ionization power
Penetration power
Ability to affect a
photographic plate
Ability to produce
fluorescence
+2e
1e OR +1e
0 (uncharged)
Yes Yes No
Strong Moderate Weak
Weak Moderate Strong
Yes Yes Yes
Yes Yes Yes
Table 14.1
14.1.5 Decay constant ()
Law of radioactive decay states:
For a radioactive source, the decay rate is directly
proportional to the number of radioactive nuclei N
remaining in the source.
i.e.




Rearranging the eq. (14.1):



Hence the decay constant is defined as the probability that a
radioactive nucleus will decay in one second. Its unit is s
1
.
13
|
.
|

\
|

dt
dN
N
dt
dN

|
.
|

\
|

N
dt
dN
=
Negative sign means the number of
remaining nuclei decreases with time
Decay constant
(14.1)
N
dt
dN
=
nuclei e radioactiv remaining of number
rate decay
=
The decay constant is a characteristic of the radioactive nuclei.

Rearrange the eq. (14.1), we get


At time t=0, N=N
0
(initial number of radioactive nuclei in the
sample) and after a time t, the number of remaining nuclei is
N. Integration of the eq. (14.2) from t=0 to time t :

14
dt
N
dN
=
(14.2)
} }
=
t N
N
dt
N
dN
0
0

| | | |
t N
N
t N
0
0
ln =
t
N
N
=
0
ln
t
e N N

=
0
Exponential law of
radioactive decay
(14.3)
15
t
e N N

=
0
The number of nuclei N as function of time t
Half-life is the time required for the number of
radioactive nuclei to decrease to half the original
number (No)
16
t
0
e N N

=
2
1
T
0
0
e N
2
N

=
2
1
T
e 2

=
2
1
T
e
2
1

=
2
1
T
e 2

= ln ln

693 0

2
T
2
1
. ln
= =
From
2
2
1
o
N
N T t = = and When
Hence
The units of the half-life are second (s), minute (min), hour
(hr), day (d) and year (y). Its unit depend on the unit of decay
constant.
Table 14.2 shows the value of half-life for several isotopes.
17
Table 14.2
Isotope Half-life
4.5 10
9
years
1.6 10
3
years
138 days
24 days
3.8 days
20 minutes
U
238
92
Po
210
884
Ra
226
88
Bi
214
83
Rn
222
86
Th
234
90
14.1.6 Activity of radioactive sample (A)
is defined as the decay rate of a radioactive sample.

Its unit is number of decays per second.
Other units for activity are curie (Ci) and becquerel (Bq) S.I.
unit.
Unit conversion:



Relation between activity (A) of radioactive sample and time t :

From the law of radioactive decay :

and definition of activity :
18
second per decays 10 7 3 Ci 1
10
. =
|
.
|

\
|
dt
dN
second per decay 1 Bq 1 =
N
dt
dN
=
dt
dN
A =
Thus
19
0 0
N A =
N A =
and
t
e N N

=
0
( )
t
e N A

=
0
t
e A A

=
0
Activity at time t
Activity at time, t =0
and ( )
t
e N

=
0
(14.4)
20
A radioactive nuclide A disintegrates into a stable nuclide B. The
half-life of A is 5.0 days. If the initial number of nuclide A is 1.010
20
,
calculate the number of nuclide B after 20 days.
Solution :

The decay constant is given by



The number of remaining nuclide A is


The number of nuclide A that have decayed is


Therefore the number of nuclide B formed is
Example 14.1.1 :
Q B A +
days 20 ; 10 1.0 days; 0 . 5
20
0 2 / 1
= = = t N T
t
e N N

=
0
21
80% of a radioactive substance decays in
4.0 days. Determine
i. the decay constant,
ii. the half-life of the substance.
Example 14.1.2 :
22
Solution :
At time
The number of remaining nuclei is


i. By applying the exponential law of radioactive decay, thus the
decay constant is






ii. The half-life of the substance is
t
e N N

=
0
23
A thorium-228 isotope which has a half-life of 1.913 years decays
by emitting alpha particle into radium-224 nucleus. Calculate
a. the decay constant.
b. the mass of thorium-228 required to decay with activity of
12.0 Ci.
c. the number of alpha particles per second for the decay of 15.0 g
thorium-228.
(Given the Avogadro constant, N
A
=6.02 10
23
mol
1
)
Solution :


a. The decay constant is given by
Example 14.1.3 :

2 ln
2 / 1
= T
( ) 60 60 24 365 1.913 y 913 . 1
2 / 1
= = T
s 10 03 . 6
7
=
24
Solution :
b. By using the unit conversion ( Ci decay/second ),


the activity is


Since then




If 6.02 10
23
nuclei of Th-228 has a mass of 228 g thus

3.86 10
19
nuclei of Th-228 has a mass of

second per decays 10 7 3 Ci 1
10
. =
N A =

A
N =
25
Solution :
c. If 228 g of Th-228 contains of 6.02 10
23
nuclei thus

15.0 g of Th-228 contains of


Therefore the number of emitted alpha particles per second is
given by
N
dt
dN
A = =
Ignored it.
26
A sample of radioactive material has an activity of 9.00 x

10
12
Bq. The material has a half-life of 80.0 s. How long

will it take for the activity to fall to 2.00 x 10
12
Bq ?
Solution
s 174 =

|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|

o
o
A
A
t t
A
A
ln
ln

T
2 ln
2
1
=
2 / 1
2 ln
t
=
t
o
t
e
A
A
e A A

=
=
0
Example 14.1.4 :
27
t
e N N

=
0
2 / 1
2 ln
t
=
N = 25% , No = 100%
t =34.6 min
(1.72 h)
Example 14.1.5 :
Learning Outcome:
At the end of this chapter, students should be
able to:
Explain the application of radioisotopes as
tracers.
28
14.2 Radioisotope as tracers (1/2 hour)
29
14.2 Radioisotope as tracers

Radioisotope (unstable isotope) is an isotope

which is exhibits radioactivity (known as radioactive
isotope).
a) Blood volume

The volume of blood in the bloodstream,

V
2 can
be determined by using dilution method as given
below.
2
2
1
1
V
A
V
A
=
1
1
2
2
V
A
A
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
30

A
1 = activity of the blood drawn from the patient

A
2 = activity of the blood in the bloodstream
V
1 = volume of the blood drawn from the patient
V
2 = volume of blood in the bloodstream of the patient
where
2
2
1
1
V
A
V
A
=
patient the from drawn blood the of volume unit per activity =
1
1
V
A
stream blood the in blood the of volume unit per activity =
2
2
V
A
31
A small volume of a solution which contains a radioactive
isotope of sodium Na-24 has an activity of 1.5 x 10
4
Bq.
The solution is injected into the bloodstream of a patient.
The half-life of the sodium isotope is 15 hours. After 30
hours, the activity of 1.0 cm
3
of blood is measured and
found to be 0.50 Bq. Estimate the volume of blood in the
patient.

Example 14.2.1
32
3
m


patient the from drawn blood of patient the in blood of
volume unit per y Activit volume unit per Activity
Bq
3
2
6
2
3
1
1
2
2
3
2
) 30 )( 15 / 2 (ln 4
2
2
10 5 . 7
10 1
5 . 0 10 75 . 3
10 75 . 3
) 10 5 . 1 (

=

=

=
=
=
=
=
V
V
V
A
V
A
A
e A
e A A
t
o

Solution 14.2.1
33
-
The exact position of an underground pipe can be located
if a small quantity of radioactive liquid is added to the
liquid being carried by the pipe.

-
Geiger counter can be used to detect the leaks.

-
Any leaks would be detected by an increase in radiation
reading .

-
The soil close to the leak becomes radioactive.

-
The short-lived radioisotope is used to avoid from the
permanent contamination of the soil.

b) Detecting leaks in underground pipes.
34

Technitium-99 is a gamma emitter (half-life 6

hours) and is
used as a medical tracer.

When injected into the blood stream,

99
Tc will not be
absorbed by the brain, because of the blood-brain barrier.

However, tumors do not have this barrier.

Thus, brain tumors readily absorb the

99
Tc.

These tumors then show as gamma-ray

emitters on detectors external to the body.

The short-lived radioisotope is used so that it

can quickly eliminate from the body.
c) Detecting brain tumors.
35
Good luck
For
Your final examination