Food Technology

Food Science – Application of basic

sciences and engineering to
study the fundamental physical,
chemical and biological
nature of foods and
engineering principals
of food processing.
 Food Technology – use of information
generated by food science
in selection, processing,
preservation, packaging,
storage and distribution as
it affects the consumption
of safe, nutritious and
wholesome foods.
 Both of above subjects are multidisciplinary subjects

 Under food engineering, engineering concepts of food

and food processing are studied

 Food engineers deal with conversion of raw

agricultural products into edible foods.

 Much of the materials shown in the syllabus are

related to food engineering e.g. basic fluid flow
dynamics, centrifugation, homogenization, mixing,
emulsification, size reduction, refrigeration, freezing,
sterilization etc.
 Unit Operations in the Food Industry
 When engineering operations are categorized
according to their unifying theory each category
resulted is called a unit operation.

Some of Basic Physical Properties and

Concepts of Food Materials
 Density (ρ)
m (Kg)
ρ=
V (m3)
standard units = Kg m-3
 Bulk Density

mass of the bulk

Bulk density =
volume of the bulk

Porosity – fraction of the volume taken up by air

Volume of air (Va)
Porosity (Є)=
Volume of the bulk (Vb)
 Specific Gravity (SG)

mass of a liquid
SG =
mass of equal amount of pure water
at the same temperature
 Density of gases depends on temperature and
pressure
 The relationship between temperature and
pressure of gases is given by the ideal gas
equation.
PV = nRT P = Pressure
V = volume n = no. of moles R = universal gas
constant T = temperature (0K)
 Viscosity
 Internal resistance of a fluid to flow.
 Mothfeel of foods depends on the viscosity
 Arises due to intermolecular forces of a liquid
e.g. tomato ketchup.
 Viscosity changes with temperature
 When a fluid is flowing over a surface the fluid
flows as layers till its velocity reaches to certain
higher level.
 Uppermost layer flows at the highest velocity.
 Each layer drags the lower layer at a velocity
lower than it.
 Velocity gradient (shear rate) can be observed
from top layer to the surface – the layer above
the surface does not move – boundary film.
 Shear force or shear stress
 The graph shear force against shear rate
indicates that there is linear relationship for
some simple liquids – Newtonian fluids.
 Some fluids behave as Newtonian fluids at
lower concentrations and non-Newtonian at
higher concentrations.
 Non- Newtonian fluids can be divided into
several sub classes.
Pseudoplastic fluid – viscosity shear rate
Dilatant fluid - viscosity shear rate
Bingham fluid – no flow until critical shear
stress is reached- viscosity
and shear rate change
linearly
.
Casson plastic fluid – as above but viscosity
and shear rate change
non-linearly.
Thixotropic fluid – structure brakes down
and viscosity decreases
 Thickness of the boundary film depends on
velocity,
viscosity and temperature
 A fluid flow as a series of layers without mixing
– streamline flow or laminar flow .
 If the velocity of a streamline fluid is increased
above certain level layers mix together –
turbulent flow

 Flow rate thickness of the boundary film

 Reynolds showed that the fluid flow through a
pipe can be characterized by a dimensionless
number – Reynolds Number (Re)
 Dvρ
Re =
µ

D = diameter (m), v = velocity (ms-1),

µ = viscosity
Re Number Nature of the flow
Re < 2100 streamline or laminar flow

2100 < Re > 4000 transitional flow

Re > 4000 turbulent flow
Re > 10 000 fully developed turbulent
flow
 Material Transfer – Mass Transfer
 Transfer of matter is an important aspect in
many food manufacturing processes.
e.g. solvent extraction, distillation, loss
of nutrients in washing and cleaning.
 Rate of material transfer is influenced by two
factors.
1. moving force
2. resistance from the medium
 Mass Balance/Material Balance
 Based on the law of mass conservation (LMC).
 Mass balance equation is an account written for
a selected mass of material based on the LMC.
 General mass balance equation for a system
would take the form of
total mass of RM = P + SM + L
RM = raw materials P = products SM = stored
materials L = loss
 A mass balance equation can be written for a
complete system or a part.
Pearson Square
 Used for calculating the relative masses of two
components to prepare a mixer of known
composition.
 Fluid Flow
 In the food industry many fluids are handled-
raw materials, finished products, cleaning
solutions and wastes etc.
 In engineering the term fluid is applied for any
thing that can be made to flow without
disintegration by applying pressure – liquids,
gases (compressible fluids), powders and
particulate foods.
 Studied under – Fluid statics and Fluid
Dynamics
 Pressure (P)
 Force (F) exerted on a unit area (A).
P = F/A

F = mg
m = mass g = acceleration
due to gravity
ρ = m/V
m= ρV
F= ρVg
 Pressure above the selected plane A
V = hA
m = hAρ
F = hAρg
 The total force must include any additional
force on the surface of the liquid.
 If the force act on a unit area of the surface is
Ps
F = A Ps + hAρg
F/A = P
P = Ps + hρg
 Pressure at a given point of a liquid depends on
the height of the liquid column above.
 Usually pressure of liquids is expressed with
respect to atmospheric pressure or zero.
 Fluid Dynamics
 Fluids in motion are studied.
 In liquid transport systems used in the food
industry, four basic components can be seen.
Tanks
Pumps
Valves
Pipelines

 Lows of mass and energy conservation are

used.
 Figure
 If the velocity of the fluid in the section (1) is v1,
area of the cross section of the pipe is A1 and
the density of the fluid is ρ1 and corresponding
values of section (2) are v2,A2 and ρ2.
ρ1 A1 v1 = ρ2A2 v2
 If the fluid is incompressible ρ1 = ρ2
A1 v1 = A2 v2 continuity equation
 According to the low of energy conservation
all types of energies involved during the
process have to be taken into account for
writing an energy balance equation.
During this process
-potential energy
-kinetic energy
-pressure energy
-energies exchange with the
surrounding
energy lost due to friction
energy input from the pump
heat energy exchanged
 Energy is measured relative to a convenient
reference point.
 Energy change of unit mass of a liquid
 Potential energy change ΔPE
ΔPE = g(Z2-Z1)
 Kinetic energy change ΔKE
2 2
V
2 – v
1
ΔKE =
2α
for a laminar flow α = 0.5
for a turbulent flow α = 1
 Pressure energy change due to pressure
change ΔP/ρ
ΔP/ρ = P2-P1/ρ
 Frictional energy loss ΔPf / ρ = Ef
For a straight pipe
Fanning equation (D’Arcy or Fanning
D’Arcy) equation
Ef = 2fv2L/D f = friction factor
For a sudden constriction in the cross
section
2
Ef = Kfv2 / 2 v = velocity downstream
 If 2 2
D2 / D1 < 0.715
2 2
Kf = 0.4 (1.25 –D2/D1 )

 If
2 2
D2 / D1 > 0.715
2 2
Kf = 0.75(1–D2/D1 )

 For a sudden increase in the cross section

v = velocity upstream
 Energy loss due to friction by different parts of
pipelines is expressed using Le/D
Le = equivalent length

Fitting Le/D
Elbow 900 square 60
Elbow 900 standard 32
Elbow medium sweep 26
Elbow long sweep 20
Elbow 450 standard 15
Gate valve open 7
Gate valve ½ open 200
 According to the low of energy conservation all
the energies mentioned above must be
provided by the pump (ΔEp).
ΔEp = ΔPE + ΔKE + ΔP/ρ + Ef
2 2

ΔEp = g(Z2-Z1) + V2 – v1/ 2α + P2-P1/ρ + Ef

2 2

gZ2 + V2 /2α + P2/ρ + Ef = gZ1 + V1 /2α + P2/ρ + ΔEp

 Friction factor (f) for a fluid depends on Re and

 Friction factor can be found out with the help of
the Moody graph.
 ε/D roughness ratio
 ε = roughness factor

 Friction factor (f) can be predicted for a

streamline flow using the Hagen-Poiseuille
equation.
f = 16/Re
Applicable in the region of 0<Re>2100
 Blasius equation
0.136(Re) -0.25
f=
4
Material Roughness Material Roughness
factor (ε) factor (ε)
Riveted steel 0.001-0.01 Galvanized iron 0.0002

Concrete 0.0003 -0.003 Asphalted cast 0.001

iron
Wood staves 0.0002-0.003 Commercial steel 0.00005

Cast iron 0.000 Drawn tubing Smooth

 Fluid Flow Applications
 Measuring pressure and velocity
 Making fluid to flow

Measuring pressure and velocity

Pressure
 Using piezometer
-U-tube
 Bourdon – tube pressure gauge
 Bellow gauge
Manometer Tube
Velocity
 Pitot tube
Appling Bernouilli’s equation when the liquid
column is stabilized
2

Z+Z’ = v1/2g + p/ρ1g

 Pitot-static tube
z = v21/2g
 Venturi and orifice meter
v1 = C√[2(p1-P2)/ρ] x A22/(A12-A22)
In a properly designed Venturi meter C
 -The orifice meter operates on the
same principal and the only difference
is using a plate with a hole instead of a
tapered tube.
-Orifice discharge coefficient is smaller.
Propeller meters
Impact meters
Rotameters

Making fluid to flow

Pumps and fans convert mechanical energy
from some other source into pressure energy
and/or velocity energy
Positive Displacement Pump
• The fluid is drawn in and then forced through
the outlet. High pressure head but can not be
throttled.
Reciprocating piston pump
Gear pump
Rotary pump

Jet Pump
• A high velocity-jet is produced in a Venturi
nozzel.
• Used in places where mechanical handling is
undesirable and in vacuum pump.
• Not much efficient, no mechanical part
therefore low cost.
• Low head

Air-lift Pumps
• Flow of liquid or gas are introduced to impart
the energy.
• Flow of air or liquid comes from the external
source or within the system.

Propeller
• Propellers are used for imparting energy.
• Used for mixing and conveying fluids
• Head is low
Centrifugal Pumps and Fans
• Converts rotational energy to velocity and
pressure energy.