Hierarchical structures

Reports, Decides and Communicates-With all mapped on the same association Do not work well with iterative and incremental software development process Manager is not necessarily always right

Project-based structures
Reports, Decides and Communicates-With are different associations Cut down on bureaucracy reduces development time Decisions are expected to be made at each level Hard to manage

Hierarchical Structure

Projects with high degree of certainty, stability, uniformity and repetition.

Requires little communication Role definitions are clear

When?
The more people on the project, the more need for a formal structure Customer might insist that the test team be independent from the design team Project manager insists on a previously successful structure

Project-Based Structure

Project with degree of uncertainty

Open communication needed among members Roles are defined on project basis

When?
Requirements change during development New technology develops during project

Forming a (Dedicated) Project Team

Corporation X
Human Resources Finance & Administration
Other Areas

Marketing

Engineering

Manufacturing

Procurement
Project Manager

MA1

MA2

MA3

EN1

EN2

EN3

MF1

MF2

MF3

PR1

PR2

Staff are assigned away from various departments to work full-time on the project.

Project Team

The (dedicated) Project Team lies at one extreme end of the continuum which starts from undertaking projects using the (pure) functional form of project organization. A project manager is selected to head a core group of personell assigned from two or more functional units of the organization and who are all required to work full-time on the project in question. Project Teams are usually cross-functional in nature and are a powerful means of dealing with complex assignments which may be difficult to do using other project organiza-tion forms.

Advantage No structural impact on the functional organization occurs only the tempo-rary siphoning away of functional specialists from their respective areas for the duration of the project or for a phase of it when heir input is required in order to complete specialist tasks.
Project completion time is comparatively smaller due to project personell devoting their efforts to the project in question full-time and also because the flow of information and decision-making is generally not hindered by hierachies as it is in the functional form of organizing projects.

Advantage Motivation, feeling of iden-tification and cohesiveness are strong in the project. Project personell share a common goal and they also share a collective responsibility for ensuring the realization of this goal. Cross-functional cooperation is strongly encouraged and promoted as a means of achieving the project goal. Cross-functional teams create a synergy effect which can handle tasks characterised by a high degree of complexity.

Disadvantage A major criticism of the (dedicated) project team relates to the cost factor. Normally, a larger expense is involved because resources and facilities are assigned to the project on a full-time basis. Across projects, this may result in a duplication of infrastructure and work. Projectitis project personell evolve a collective identity encapsulating themselves from the enterprise, giving rise to a nonconstructive usand themoutlook. Sometimes this not only undermines the integration of the project effort back into mainstream operations but also the subsequent assimilation of project personell back into their respective functional areas.

Disadvantage The project may become over-dependent on the gamut of skills, expertise and experience held by the project personell and may not seek to incorporate fresh skills, expertise and experience which is held by individuals and organiza-tional entities which are outside the project. The assimilation of project personell back into their respective functional units may prove difficult due to their prolonged absence from their units and the challenge of keeping up with the developments which have taken place in the functional units during the project period.

Determining The Best Project Organization Form The projects size The projects strategic importance The projects innovation requirement The projects level of required integration across functional delineations The project environments complexity The project budget and time constraints The project resource requirement level of stability In general the higher the level of these factors, the greater is the requirement of autonomy and authority for the project manager and his/her team in order to ensure the success of the project (i.e. a strong project matrix or dedicated project team is desirable).

Criteria for organizational design decisions (Robert Youker, 1977) Criterion Uncertainty Functional Structure Low Matrix Structure High Project Structure High

Technology
Complexity Duration Size

Standard
Low Short Small

Complicated
Medium Medium Medium

New
High Long Large

Importance
Customer Interdependency (within)

Low
Diverse Low

Medium
Medium Medium

High
One High

Interdependency (between)
Time criticality Resource criticality Differentiation

High
Low Depends Low

Medium
Medium Depends High

Low
High Depends Medium

Associations in organizational structures

Reporting association:
Used for reporting status information

Decision association
Used for propagating decisions

Communication association
Used for exchanging information needed for decisions (e.g., requirements, design models, issues).

Possible Mappings of ToDos to People

One-to-One
Ideal but often not worth to be called a project

Many-to-Few
Each project member assumes several roles ("hats") Danger of overcommittment Need for load balancing

Many-to-"Too-Many"
Some people don't have significant roles Bystanders Loosing touch with project

Assigning Responsibilities To People

Team A To Do List for the Project Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 6 Item 7 Role 1 Item 1 Item 2 Item 9 Role 2 Item 4 Item 5 Item 7 Person A

Role 1 Role 2

Person B

Item 8 Item 9

Role 3 Item 3 Item 6 Item 8

Role 3

Work Breakdown Structure

Using the Work Breakdown Structure
1. Estimate and schedule the work (Durations, precedences on WBS) 2. Organize and schedule resources (resource allocated WBS) 3. Assign responsibilities (Resource ramp-up, resource allocated WBS) 4. Estimate and allocate costs and budgets (costed WBS) 5. Add up costs to different levels
Task Levels on the WBS (phase, account/contract) Cost account Total project

6. Get resource commitments 7. Schedule start <--> end dates 8. Track expenditures, schedules and performance

Implement Work Breakdown Structure Subdivision into Smaller Increments Level 1: Total Project

Level 2: Systems of the Project

Level 3: Subsystems of the Project Level 4: Units/Equipments Level 5: Work Packages or Components

WBS serves several important Purposes, such as: Subdivision of Work Identification of Project Levels Work Sharing between Companies Economic Geographical Distribution of Funds Implementation of WBS Numbering System (Code) applicable to the entire Project Definition of Cost Account Structure Allocation of Funds Implementation of Project Control in line with the WBS Code Assignment of Responsibilities to Companies & Individual Managers Identification of Interfaces at all Levels Implementation of Documentation Numbers related to WBS Code Identification of Work Package

Work Package Description Work Package (WP) Identification Title Identification of the WP in the WBS (WP Number) Date of the Start and End of the WP Company or Entity in charge of the WP Performance

Work Package Manager Description of the WP Tasks to be Performed Tasks Explicitly Excluded WP Inputs Product(s) to be Completed or Delivered

The Project Manager

Leadership Skills:
Vision and Strategy Establishing Direction Aligning People Communicating Negotiating Motivating and Inspiring Influencing Organizations Overcoming Barriers to Change

General Management Skills:

Planning Finance and Accounting Personnel Administration Technology Organizational Development Delegation Team Building Conflict Management Solving Problems

Communications Skills:
Writing Listening Speaking Presenting Media Relations Meeting Management

Role of a project manager

The role of a project manager is affected by the oneshot nature of the project The role of a project manager is difficult when team members are still linked to their permanent work areas
Members may be assigned to several projects simultaneously

Managers must rely on their communication skills and powers of persuasion

Project manager attributes

Leader & manager Facilitator, coordinator Communicator Credibility: Technical/ Administrative Work under pressure Goal-oriented Innovator Versatilist Knowledgeable about the organization Political sensitivity Conflict: sense, confront, resolve Can deal with stress, chaos, ambiguity Planning and followthrough Ethical dilemmas

Project manager attributes

Versatilist Specialist Generalist

Project manager duties

Reports to senior management Communicates with users Plans and schedules Obtains and allocates resources Controls risks Manages people Coordinates Implements quality assurance Controls the budget Delivers results

The Project Team

Team Formation
Top level Design Rough Subsystem Decomposition (before requirements analysis) Done during Predevelopment phase Team Formation done after Top Level Design Heuristics: One team for each subsystem One cross-functional task per team 5-7 members per team Be prepared to iterate the team formation after system design when the subsystem decomposition is baseline

Project teams
Diversity of knowledge needed Cross-functional Self-directed Often ad-hoc or temporary Often distributed (geographically) Start and end dates

Project personnel skills

Technical Political Problem-oriented
(vs. discipline-oriented)

Goal-oriented Flexibility, adaptability High self-esteem

can handle failure, risk, uncertainty, unexpected can share blame and credit