Cross-Over Distortion

The non-zero turn-on voltage of a transistor

causes cross-over distortion in a class B
output stage.
Approximate
transistor
response.
v
in

v
out

V
BE

0
Ideal
response
Eliminating Cross-Over Distortion
v
in

v
out

NPN
response
NPN response
for v
B
=
v
IN
+0.7
PNP
response
PNP
response for
v
B
= v
IN
-0.7
Class AB Output Stage
Eg. Positive half cycle:
bias in B
V v v + =
1
BE bias in BE B out
BE B
V V v V v v
V v
+ = =
>
1
1
If
in out
BE bias
v v
V V
=
= If
Practical Class AB Stages
In practice, there isnt an exact turn-on
voltage (V
BE
).
V
bias
is set slightly high so that there is a non-
zero quiescent collector current.
Each transistor will now conduct for slightly
more than 180 - i.e. Class AB operation.
Class AB Efficiency
Slightly more power is dissipated using a
class AB stage compared with a class B due
to the non-zero quiescent collector current.
In a well designed circuit, this extra power
should be insignificant so the class B
efficiency calculations are still valid.
I.e. maximum efficiency = 78 %.
Thermal Effects
The quiescent collector current depends on V
BE
and also
on the junction temperature. So, in designing the biasing
network, thermal effects must be considered.
Net result is that if V
BE
is fixed, I
C
rises exponentially
with temperature.
(

=
(

=
kT
qV
I I
kT
qV
I I
G
G S
BE
S C
exp
but
exp
V 6 . 0 ~
BE
V
V 2 . 1 =
G
V
Thermal Effects
20 30 40 50 60
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
Temperature [C]
C
o
l
l
e
c
t
o
r

C
u
r
r
e
n
t

[
m
A
]

(
V
B
E
=
0
.
5

V
)

Thermal Runaway
Collector Current Flows, so
power is dissipated
Temperature rises
Collector current rises
Power dissipation
increases
Suppressing Thermal Runaway
Fit a bigger heatsink.
Use series emitter-resistors.
Use a temperature dependent bias voltage.

The latter two are preferred methods. Both
introduce negative feedback.
Emitter Resistors
RE EB BE bias
V V V V 2 2
2 1
+ + =
So, if I
C
rises, V
BE
falls and
I
C
is reduced.
Note R
E
should be small
compared with R
L
to minimise
power wasted.
By symmetry:
E C bias
RE bias EB BE
R I V
V V V V
=
= =
2 1
Bias Voltage The V
BE
Multiplier
|
.
|

\
|
+ ~
2
1
1 5 . 0
R
R
V
bias
2
1
1 2 1
R
R V
R I V
BE
R R
= =
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + = + =
2
1
2
1
2 1
1
R
R
V V
R
R V
V V V
BE BE
BE
R R bias
Base current is negligible, so:
2
2 1
R
V
I I
BE
R R
= ~
V
BE
V
BE
Multiplier Temperature Effects
If junction temperature rises but I
C
stays the
same, V
BE
must fall causing V
bias
to fall also.
Negative thermal feedback achieved if the
transistor is in close contact with the output
devices.
Especially suitable for integrated circuits
where close thermal contact is guaranteed.
Design Example (i) R
E
Let R
L
= 16 O and A
max
= 12 V.
(Also assume V
out
= 0 through
d.c. feedback).
V 3 . 14 7 . 0 15
(max) 1 (max) 1
= ~ =
BE B E
V V V
O = O s 2 Let 3
E E
R R
( )
12
16
16
3 . 14
max max 1
>
+

>
+
E
L E
L
E
R
A
R R
R
V
Design Example (ii) I
bias
mA 10 Let
mA 75 . 3
200 16
12
(min)
(max)
(min)
(max) 1
(max) 1
=
>

= = = >
bias
bias
L
C
B bias
I
I
R
A I
I I
| |
NB. I
bias
is set well above
minimum to ensure that a
significant current flows through
the V
BE
multiplier.
Design Example (iii) V
bias
Peak output current = 0.75 A,
choose quiescent collector current
to be small by comparison, e.g.
( )
V 5 . 1
2 025 . 0 2 7 . 0 2
2 2
mA 25
2 1
~
+ =
+ =
= =
bias
RE BE bias
C C
V
V V V
I I
Design Example (iii cont) V
bias
For constant bias voltage,
mA 1 choose so
1
1 3
=
<< <<
R
bias R B
I
I I I
k 1 2
5 . 1 1 5 . 0
2 1
2
1
= =
= |
.
|

\
|
+ =
R R
R
R
V
bias
O =
= = =
500
5 . 0
2
2 1 2
R
R I V V
R BE R
Class AB Summary
Class AB achieves the efficiency of a class B
output stage but without cross-over
distortion.
Biasing arrangements are more complex,
however, as the threat of thermal runaway
must be eliminated.