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The Cell Cycle
The Cell Cycle
One characteristic that distinguishes living from non-living is the ability to reproduce Cellular reproduction allows the continuity of life, growth and repair Cellular reproduction can be asexual or vegetative, or sexual
Plant cuttings will sprout roots, as will a potato, which is a tuber a modified, underground stem.
The prokaryotic chromosome is bound to plasma membrane, in the nucleoid region of the cell. It remains bound, even after it is duplicated, as the cell begins to elongate. This causes the parent and daughter chromosomes to separate eventually the cell splits into two identical cells (Clones)
Yeast
Hydra
Sexual reproduction for these organisms usually follows environmental stress such as a lack of food and other resources
Mitosis is the division of the nucleus and its contents Mitosis is followed by cytokinesis the division of the cytoplasm
Other cells such as neurons, adipose cells, muscle cells, etc. never or rarely divide
Phases of Interphase
G1 phase: The period prior to the synthesis of DNA. In this phase, the cell prepares for cell division - proteins are synthesized - the cell increases in mass S phase: The period after G1, where all genetic material (DNA) is synthesized G2 phase: The period after DNA synthesis has occurred but prior to the start of mitosis. - cell continues to increase in size - centrosome divides into 2 - In animal cells, each centrosome has 2 centrioles
Chromosomes
A human Karyotype
DNA Replication
(p-arm)
(q-arm)
Duplicated Chromosome
During mitotic division, a transient structure called kinetochore is formed on top of the centromeres. The kinetochores are the sites where the spindle fibers attach.
Centrioles exist in pairs, in the centrosome region of animal cells Centrioles have microtubules arranged in 9 triplets
Studies have shown that certain animal cells, particularly female gametes (oocytes), can successfully divide even when their centrioles are destroyed.
Some investigators have also found, however, that the absence of centrioles in animal cells is associated with an increased number of divisional errors and substantial delays in the mitotic process, especially before chromosome segregation. Consequently, it has been suggested that centrioles evolved as a refinement of the cell, making mitosis a much more efficient and less error-prone process.
Phases of Mitosis
Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase (followed immediately by cytokinesis)
Phases of Mitosis
G2 of Interphase
Prophase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Completion of cytokinesis
Prophase
1. Nuclear chromatin starts to become organized and condenses into thick strands that eventually become chromosomes observable in the optical microscope. 2. The nucleoli, primarily responsible for the production of ribosomal RNA, begin to disappear as the chromosomes condense. 3. The mitotic spindle, which is assembled by the centrosomes begins to appear along the periphery of the nuclear membrane. These are called asters or stars 4. Centrosomes begin to move apart
Prometaphase
Nuclear membrane begins to fragment This allows spindle fibers to invade the nuclear space and interact with chromosomes Chromosomes are extremely dense and each sister chromatid has a protein complex at the centromere called a kinetochore Some microtubules (spindle fibers) attach to chromosome kinetochores Other microtubules (spindle fibers) interact with those from the opposite pole of the mitotic spindle
Metaphase
Centrosomes are at opposite poles The chromosomes, attached to the kinetochore microtubules, begin to align in a single plane (known as the metaphase plate) midway between the spindle poles Each sister chromatids kinetochore is attached to a spindle fiber coming from opposite poles
Anaphase
Sister chromatids pull apart and are now considered daughter chromosomes * Hypothesis - the motor proteins in the kinetochore move the chromosome along the microtubule toward the poles. Nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen, pushing the centrosomes further apart. At the end of anaphase, each group of chromosomes is clustered at opposite poles.
Telophase
In animal cells, the cleavage furrow begins to form due to an actin ring (microfilaments) In plant cells there is no cleavage furrow a cell plate forms (discussed later) Nuclear membrane begins to re-form The mitotic spindle begins to disassemble Chromosomes begin to return to chromatin state Nucleolus begins to reappear
Interphase
Nucleus contains chromatin Only one set of centrioles (one centrosome) Fully formed nuclear membrane Fully formed nucleolus
Centrioles will replicate once the cell is ready to divide again
G2 - Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
PROPHASE
PROMETAPHASE
METAPHASE
ANAPHASE
TELOPHASE
Contractile ring made of actin microfilaments, pinches the cell into two.
The complex of Cdk1 and cyclin B is called mitosis promoting factor (MPF) a.k.a maturation promoting factor
Mitosis
Cyclins are degraded by proteosomes, after they are tagged for degradation with a protein called ubiquitin. Ubiquitin is a big TRASH sign and proteasomes are protein shredders.
What is Cancer?
Uncontrolled Cell division Loss of cell cycle control and checkpoints
Tumors
Benign - A spontaneous growth of tissue which forms an abnormal mass is called a tumor. A tumor that is noninvasive and noncancerous is referred to as a benign tumor.
Malignant - A tumor that invades neighboring cells and is cancerous is referred to as a malignant tumor.
Matastasis Cancer that has spread to other tissues.
Immune cells (WBCs) such as NK cells can attack and lyse tumor cells
Some immune cells can signal the rogue cells to launch the apoptotic pathways
Blebbing in Apoptosis
Necrotic cells
Apoptotic Pathways
The binding of insulin to its receptor on a cell starts a cascade of cellular events which finally leads to the uptake of glucose and the lowering of blood glucose levels.
THE END