Power System Operation and Control

Introduction
Hans Christian Oersted discovered electromagnetism in1820 In 1831, Michael Faradays many years of efforts rewarded when he discovered electromagnetic induction Later, he invented the first generator and the first dynamo Today, electric energy technologies have a central role in social and economic development at all scales Energy is closely linked to environmental pollution and degradation, to economic development and quality of life Today, we are mostly dependent on nonrenewable fossil fuels that have been and will continue to be a major cause of pollution and climate change Finding sustainable alternatives is becoming increasingly urgent Distributed energy system will no longer leave the end energy users totally dependent on central power station

Definitions
Electric Capacity is a term that defines the rated continuous load-carrying ability, expressed in megawatts (MW) or megavolt-amperes (MVA) of generation, transmission, or other electrical equipment Electric Energy is the term that defines the generation or use of electric power by a device over a period of time. It is expressed in kilowatt-hours (kWh), megawatt-hours (MWh), or gigawatt-hours (GWh)

Laws
Many states have mandated the use of renewable energy. The Ohios Alternative Energy Portfolio Standard has recently been passed into law. It requires: Investor owned utilities obtain 25% of their electricity from renewable and advanced energy sources by 2025. A 0.5% set aside has been put in for solar PV energy sources. Penalties of $450 per MWh for non-compliance with solar benchmarks and $45 per MWh for non-compliance with other benchmarks starting in 2009. Benchmarks can be met by purchasing Renewable Energy Credits (REC) each equal to 1 MWh of renewable energy. Purchasers of the product could sell RECs into the REC market. Their current value is around $37.50 because several states have a $45.00 non-compliance rates. It is expected that solar RECs will sell at much higher rates because of Ohios $450 per MWh solar noncompliance rate.

Smart Grid with High Penetration of Renewable Energy Sources

Electric Power System Planned Operation.

Operational objectives of a power system have been to provide a continuous quality service with minimum cost to the user. These are: objectives First Objective: Supplying the energy user with quality service, i.e., at acceptable voltage and frequency Second Objective: Meeting the first objective with acceptable impact upon the environment. Third Objective: Meeting the first and second objectives continuously, i.e., with adequate security and reliability. Fourth Objective: Meeting the first, second, and third objectives with optimum economy, i.e., minimum cost to the energy user. The term continuous service can be translated to mean secure and reliable service

Integrated Objectives

Interrelated objectives of operation of a power system

The direction of the arrows indicates the priority in which the objectives are implemented

Economically constrained operation of a power system.

Planned Operation
The problem of attaining the stated objectives may be described as management of facilities and resources over a specified period of time. The facilities of a large power system consist of many generating units, transmission lines, transformers, circuit breakers, DC/DC converters & DC/ AC converters which are to scheduled for orderly operation & maintenance The energy resources of a large power system consist of hydro, nuclear, fossil power and renewable energy sources such as wind farm, photovoltaic and green energy sources such as fuel cells, combined power and heat (CHP) and micro turbines. These facilities are to be managed and utilized to satisfy load demand of a power system. The load demand of a power system is cyclic in nature and has a daily peak demand over a week period, weekly peak demand over a month period, and monthly peak demand over a year period. Overall objectives of planned scheduling operation are to manage facilities and optimize resources for satisfying the peak demand of each load cycle, such that the total cost of operation is minimized.

The Twenty Four Hour Load Variation Sampled Every Five Minutes

The Weekly Load Variation Sampled Hourly

Task Division
1) 2) 3) Operations planning Operations control Operations accounting

Interrelated tasks of planned scheduling operation

Task Division

Energy management system and its functions vs. decision time

Operation Control
The primary functions of operations control are satisfying the instantaneous load on a second-to-second and minute-to-minute basis. Some of these functions are: Load Frequency Control Automatic Generation Control (AGC) Network Topology Determination (NTD) State Estimation (SE) On-Line Load Flow Schedule of Transactions (ST) Economic Dispatch Calculation (EDC) Operating Reserve Calculation (ORC) Load Management System (LMS)

Operation ControlContd.
Load Frequency Control(LFC). This function is also referred to as governor response. As the load demand of the power system increases, the speed of generators will decrease and this will reduce the system frequency. Similarly, as system load demand decreases, the speed of the system generators would increase and this will increase the system frequency. The power system frequency control must be maintained for the power system grid to remain stable. We will discuss this function later. Automatic Generation Control (AGC): The primary objective of AGC is to match area generation to area load, i.e., to match the tie-line interchanges with the schedules and to control the system frequency. Network Topology Determination: This function uses the real time data base, substation topology and network configuration for determining the network model for real-time steady state analysis. This function is needed for determining the voltage of the system busses.

Operation ControlContd.
State Estimation: State estimation of a power system is the process of estimating the power system bus voltages (magnitudes and angles) from measurements made in real time on power system grid. The main function of state estimation is to eliminate measurement noise and to reconcile the redundant measurement into a consistent set system states. Online Load Flow (OLF): This function generally utilizes the output of network topology, i.e. the real time network model, and the bus injections from state estimation for purpose of security monitoring, security analysis and penalty factor calculations. This function performs if then condition to determine the possible system states (voltages) in face of system outages such loss of a line due to weather condition or sudden loss of a generator. Schedule of transactions (ST): The schedule of transactions adjusts the scheduled net interchange (tie-line interchanges) of a power system to reflect the summation of all interchange scheduled transactions. That is ST computes a table of net scheduled values for use of AGC function.

Operation ControlContd.
Economic Dispatch Calculation: Economic dispatch calculation of a power system determines the loading of each generator on a minute-by-minute basis so as to minimize the operating costs. Operating Reserve Calculation: The objective of operating reserve calculation is to calculate the actual reserve carried by each unit and to check whether or not there is a sufficient reserve in a system. The operating reserve consists of spinning reserve (synchronized), non-spinning reserve (non-synchronized), and interruptible load. The minimum reserve criteria is published by the North American Power Systems Interconnection Committee (NAPSIC). Load Management System: Load management is a process for modifying electric power demand patterns into more desirable profiles using smart meters and real time pricing of power. The services which are required to maintain system reliability and meet operating criteria, such services include spinning, non-spinning, replacement reserves, regulation (AGC), voltage control and black start capability are commonly referred to as ancillary services.

Interrelated tasks for planned scheduling operation