Seismology Lecture 2

Normal modes and surface waves

Barbara Romanowicz
Univ. of California, Berkeley
CIDER Summer 2010 - KITP
From Stein and Wysession, 2003
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P
S
SS
Surface waves
Loma Prieta (CA) 1989 M 7 earthquake observed at KEV, Finland
From Stein and Wysession, 2003
Shallow earthquake
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one hour
Direction of propagation along the earths surface
L
Z
T
Surface waves
Arise from interaction of body waves with free
surface.

Energy confined near the surface

Rayleigh waves: interference between P and SV waves
exist because of free surface

Love waves: interference of multiple S reflections.
Require increase of velocity with depth

Surface waves are dispersive: velocity depends on
frequency (group and phase velocity)

Most of the long period energy (>30 s) radiated from
earthquakes propagates as surface waves
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After Park et al, 2005
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Free oscillations
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The kth free oscillation satisfies:
SNREI model; Solutions of the form
k = (l,m,n)
f L
t
+ =
c
c
) (
2
2
0
u
u

0 ) (
2
0
= +
k k k
u u L e
t i
k
k
e r u
e
| u) , , ( = u
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Free Oscillations (Standing Waves)

0
e
2
u = L(u)
In the frequency domain:
Free Oscillations
In a Spherical, Non-Rotating, Elastic and Isotropic Earth model,
the kth free oscillation can be described as:
l = angular order; m = azimuthal order; n = radial order
k = (l,m,n) singlet
Degeneracy:
(l,n): multiplet = 2l+1 singlets with the same eigenfrequency
n
e
l
t i
k
k
e r u
e
| u) , , ( = u

u
k
(r,u,|) =

r
n
U
l
(r)Y
l
m
(u,|) +
n
V
l
(r)V
1
Y
l
m
(u,|)
n
W
l
(r)

r V
1
Y
l
m
(u,|)

e
k
=
n
e
l

l s m s l

Y
l
m
(u,|) = X
l
m
(u)e
im|
Spheroidal modes : Vertical & Radial component
Toroidal modes : Transverse component
n T l
l : angular order, horizontal nodal planes
n : overtone number, vertical nodes
n=0
n=1
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Fundamental
mode
overtones
Spheroidal modes
n=0
n
S
l
Spatial shapes:
Depth sensitivity kernels of earths normal modes
53.9
44.2
20.9
or=0.05m
0
T
2
2
S
1
0
S
3
0
S
2
0
T
4
1
S
2
0
S
5
0
S
0
0
S
4
3
S
1
2
S
2
1
S
3
0
T
3
Sumatra Andaman earthquake 12/26/04 M 9.3
Rotation, ellipticity, 3D heterogeneity
removes the degeneracy:

-> For each (n, l) there are 2l+1 singlets
with different frequencies
0S2 0S3
2l+1=5 2l+1=7

mode
0
S
3
7 singlets

Geographical sensitivity kernel K
0
(u,|)

0
S
45
0
S
3

o

frequency
Frequency shift depends only on the average structure along the vertical plane
containing the source and the receiver weighted by the depth sensitivity of
the mode considered:
Mode frequency shifts
SNREI->

o

e
k
~
1
2t
oe(s)ds
}
oe(u,|) = M
kk
(r)om
0
a
}
(r,u,|)r
2
dr
S
R
P(,)
Masters et al., 1982
Anomalous splitting of core sensitive modes
Data
Model
Mantle mode
Core mode
Seismograms by mode summation
Mode Completeness:

u =Re
{
a
k
k

(t)u
k
(r,u,)e
ie
k
t
e
o
k
t
}
Orthonormality (L is an adjoint operator):

0
u
k'
*
u
k
dV =o
kk'
V
}
f L
t
+ =
c
c
) (
2
2
0
u
u

* Denotes complex conjugate

Depends on source excitation f
Normal mode summation 1D
A : excitation
w : eigen-frequency
Q : Quality factor ( attenuation )

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Spheroidal modes : Vertical & Radial component
Toroidal modes : Transverse component
n T l
l : angular order, horizontal nodal
planes
n : overtone number, vertical nodes
n=0
n=1
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P
S
SS
Surface waves
Loma Prieta (CA) 1989 M 7 earthquake observed at KEV, Finland

u(t) =Re
{
A
k
k

e
ie
k
t
e
o
k
t
}
Standing waves and travelling waves
A
k
---- linear combination of moment tensor elements and
spherical harmonics Y
l
m

When l is large (short wavelengths):

Y
l
m
(u,) ~
1
t sinA
cos (l +
1
2
)A
t
4
+
mt
2



(

(
e
im
Replace x=a , where is angular distance and x linear distance along the earths
surface


Jeans formula : ka = l + 1/2

Y
l
m
(u,) ~
1
t sinA
cos kx
t
4
+
mt
2



(

(
e
im
~
1
2t sinA
e
i(kx
t
4
+
mt
2
)
+e
i(kx
t
4
+
mt
2
)



(

(
Hence:

u(t) = Re
{
A
k
k

e
ie
k
t
e
o
k
t
}
e
i(e
k
t kx)
e
i(e
k
t +kx)
Plane waves
propagating
in opposite
directions
-> Replace discrete sum over l by continuous
sum over frequency (Poissons formula):

u(x, t) = S(e)e
i(et kx)
}
de
With k=k() (dispersion)

k = k(e)
Phase velocity:



C(e) =
e
k
S is slowly varying with ; The main contribution to the integral is when
the phase is stationary:

S is slowly varying with ; The main contribution to the
integral is when the phase is stationary:

du
de
= t
dk
de
x = 0
For some frequency
s
The energy associated with a particular group
centered on
s
travels with the group velocity:

U(e) =
x
t
=
de
dk
Rayleigh phase velocity maps
Reference: G. Masters CIDER 2008
Period = 50 s Period = 100 s
Group velocity maps
Period = 100 s Period = 50 s
Reference: G. Masters CIDER 2008
Importance of overtones for constraining structure
in the transition zone
n=0: fundamental mode
n=1
n=2

overtones
Overtones
By including overtones, we can
see into the transition zone and
the top of the lower mantle.
from Ritsema et al, 2004
Ritsema et al.,
2004
Fundamental
Mode
Surface
waves
Overtone
surface waves
Body waves
120 km
325 km

600 km

1100 km
1600 km


2100
km

2800 km
Anisotropy
In general elastic properties of a material vary with
orientation



Anisotropy causes seismic waves to propagate at
different speeds
in different directions
If they have different polarizations

Types of anisotropy
General anisotropic model: 21
independent elements of the elastic
tensor c
ijkl

Long period waveforms sensitive to a
subset (13) of which only a small number
can be resolved

Radial anisotropy
Azimuthal anisotropy
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Montagner and
Nataf, 1986
Radial
Anisotropy
Radial (polarization) Anisotropy
Love/Rayleigh wave discrepancy
Vertical axis of symmetry
A= V
ph
2
,
C= V
pv
2
,
F,
L= V
sv
2
,
N= V
sh
2
(Love, 1911)
Long period S waveforms can only resolve
L , N


=> = (V
sh
/V
sv
)
2
oln =2(oln V
sh
olnV
sv
)

Azimuthal anisotropy

Horizontal axis of symmetry
Described in terms of , azimuth with
respect to the symmetry axis in the
horizontal plane
6 Terms in 2 (B,G,H) and 2 terms in 4 (E)
Cos 2 -> Bc,Gc, Hc
Sin 2 -> Bs,Gs, Hs
Cos 4-> Ec
Sin 4 -> Es
In general, long period waveforms can resolve Gc
and Gs


Montagner and Anderson, 1989
Vectorial tomography:
Combination radial/azimuthal (Montagner and
Nataf, 1986):
Radial anisotropy with arbitrary axis
orientation (cf olivine crystals oriented in
flow) orthotropic medium
L,N, +, O


x
y
z
+
O
Axis of symmetry
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Montagner, 2002
= (Vsh/Vsv)
2

Radial
Anisotropy
Isotropic
velocity
Azimuthal
anisotropy
Depth= 100 km
Montagner, 2002
Ekstrom and Dziewonski, 1997
Pacific ocean radial anisotropy: Vsh > Vsv
Gung et al., 2003
Marone and Romanowicz, 2007
Absolute Plate Motion
Continuous lines: % Fo (Mg)
from
Griffin et al. 2004
Grey: Fo%93
black: Fo%92
Yuan and Romanowicz, in press
Layer 1 thickness
Mid-continental rift zone
Trans Hudson
Orogen
Finite frequency effects
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Structure sensitivity kernels: path average approximation (PAVA)
versus Finite Frequency (Born) kernels
S
R
M
S
R
M
PAVA
2D
Phase
kernels
Panning et al., 2009
Waveform tomography
observed
synthetic
Waveform Tomography