Chapter 40

Introduction to
Quantum Physics
Need for Quantum Physics
 Problems remained from classical mechanics
that relativity didn’t explain
 Attempts to apply the laws of classical physics
to explain the behavior of matter on the atomic
scale were consistently unsuccessful
 Problems included:
 blackbody radiation

The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a heated object
 photoelectric effect
 Emission of electrons by an illuminated metal
Quantum Mechanics
Revolution
 Between 1900 and 1930, another revolution
took place in physics
 A new theory called quantum mechanics was
successful in explaining the behavior of
particles of microscopic size
 The first explanation using quantum
mechanics was introduced by Max Planck
 Many other physicists were involved in other
subsequent developments
Blackbody Radiation
 An object at any temperature is known
to emit thermal radiation
 Characteristics depend on the temperature
and surface properties
 The thermal radiation consists of a
continuous distribution of wavelengths from
all portions of the em spectrum
Blackbody Radiation, cont.
 At room temperature, the wavelengths of the
thermal radiation are mainly in the infrared
region
 As the surface temperature increases, the
wavelength changes
 It will glow red and eventually white
 The basic problem was in understanding the
observed distribution in the radiation emitted
by a black body
 Classical physics didn’t adequately describe the
observed distribution
Blackbody Radiation, final
 A black body is an ideal system that
absorbs all radiation incident on it
 The electromagnetic radiation emitted
by a black body is called blackbody
radiation
 Blackbody Approximation
 A good approximation of a
black body is a small hole
leading to the inside of a
hollow object
 The hole acts as a perfect
absorber
 The nature of the radiation
leaving the cavity through
the hole depends only on
the temperature of the
cavity
Blackbody Experiment Results
 The total power of the emitted radiation
increases with temperature
 Stefan’s law (from Chapter 20):
P = σAeT4
 The peak of the wavelength distribution shifts
to shorter wavelengths as the temperature
increases
 Wien’s displacement law
 λmaxT = 2.898 x 10-3 m.K
Stefan’s Law – Details
 P = σAeT4
 P is the power
 σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
 σ = 5.670 x 10-8 W / m2 . K4
 Stefan’s law can be written in terms of
intensity
 I = P/A = σT4
 For a blackbody, where e = 1
Wien’s Displacement Law
 λmaxT = 2.898 x 10-3 m.K
 λmax is the wavelength at which the curve
peaks
 T is the absolute temperature
 The wavelength is inversely
proportional to the absolute
temperature
 As the temperature increases, the peak is
“displaced” to shorter wavelengths
Intensity of Blackbody
Radiation, Summary
 The intensity increases
with increasing
temperature
 The amount of radiation
emitted increases with
increasing temperature
 The area under the
curve
 The peak wavelength
decreases with
increasing temperature
Active Figure 40.3

(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

Rayleigh-Jeans Law
 An early classical attempt to explain
blackbody radiation was the Rayleigh-
Jeans law
2πck BT
I  λ,T  
λ4
 At long wavelengths, the law matched
experimental results fairly well
 Rayleigh-Jeans Law, cont.
 At short wavelengths,
there was a major
disagreement between
the Rayleigh-Jeans law
and experiment
 This mismatch became
known as the ultraviolet
catastrophe
 You would have infinite
energy as the wavelength
approaches zero
Max Planck
 Introduced the
concept of “quantum
of action”
 In 1918 he was
awarded the Nobel
Prize for the
discovery of the
quantized nature of
energy
Planck’s Theory of Blackbody
Radiation
 In 1900 Planck developed a theory of
blackbody radiation that leads to an equation
for the intensity of the radiation
 This equation is in complete agreement with
experimental observations
 He assumed the cavity radiation came from
atomic oscillations in the cavity walls
 Planck made two assumptions about the
nature of the oscillators in the cavity walls
Planck’s Assumption, 1
 The energy of an oscillator can have only
certain discrete values En
 En = nhƒ
 n is a positive integer called the quantum
number
 h is Planck’s constant
 ƒ is the frequency of oscillation
 This says the energy is quantized
 Each discrete energy value corresponds to
a different quantum state
Planck’s Assumption, 2
 The oscillators emit or absorb energy
when making a transition from one
quantum state to another
 The entire energy difference between the
initial and final states in the transition is
emitted or absorbed as a single quantum
of radiation
 An oscillator emits or absorbs energy only
when it changes quantum states
 Energy-Level Diagram
 An energy-level diagram
shows the quantized
energy levels and allowed
transitions
 Energy is on the vertical
axis
 Horizontal lines represent
the allowed energy levels
 The double-headed
arrows indicate allowed
transitions
More About Planck’s Model
 The average energy of a wave is the average
energy difference between levels of the
oscillator, weighted according to the
probability of the wave being emitted
 This weighting is described by the Boltzmann
distribution law and gives the probability of a
state being occupied as being proportional to
E kBT
e where E is the energy of the state
Planck’s
Model,
Graphs
Active Figure 40.7

(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

Planck’s Wavelength
Distribution Function
 Planck generated a theoretical
expression for the wavelength
distribution
2πhc 2
I  λ,T   5 hcλk T
λ e B
 1
 h = 6.626 x 10-34 J.s
 h is a fundamental constant of nature
Planck’s Wavelength
Distribution Function, cont.
 At long wavelengths, Planck’s equation
reduces to the Rayleigh-Jeans
expression
 At short wavelengths, it predicts an
exponential decrease in intensity with
decreasing wavelength
 This is in agreement with experimental
results
Photoelectric Effect
 The photoelectric effect occurs when
light incident on certain metallic
surfaces causes electrons to be emitted
from those surfaces
 The emitted electrons are called
photoelectrons
 Photoelectric Effect Apparatus
 When the tube is kept in the
dark, the ammeter reads
zero
 When plate E is illuminated
by light having an
appropriate wavelength, a
current is detected by the
ammeter
 The current arises from
photoelectrons emitted from
the negative plate and
collected at the positive
plate
Active Figure 40.9

(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

 Photoelectric Effect, Results
 At large values of ∆V, the
current reaches a maximum
value
 All the electrons emitted at E
are collected at C
 The maximum current
increases as the intensity of
the incident light increases
 When ∆V is negative, the
current drops
 When ∆V is equal to or more
negative than ∆Vs, the current
is zero
Photoelectric Effect Feature 1
 Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy
on light intensity
 Classical Prediction
 Electrons should absorb energy continually from the
electromagnetic waves
 As the light intensity incident on the metal is increased,
the electrons should be ejected with more kinetic energy
 Experimental Result

The maximum kinetic energy is independent of light
intensity

The maximum kinetic energy is proportional to the
stopping potential (∆Vs)
Photoelectric Effect Feature 2
 Time interval between incidence of light and
ejection of photoelectrons
 Classical Prediction

At low light intensities, a measurable time interval should
pass between the instant the light is turned on and the
time an electron is ejected from the metal

This time interval is required for the electron to absorb the
incident radiation before it acquires enough energy to
escape from the metal
 Experimental Result

Electrons are emitted almost instantaneously, even at
very low light intensities
Photoelectric Effect Feature 3
 Dependence of ejection of electrons on light
frequency
 Classical Prediction

Electrons should be ejected at any frequency as long as
the light intensity is high enough
 Experimental Result
 No electrons are emitted if the incident light falls below
some cutoff frequency, ƒc
 The cutoff frequency is characteristic of the material being
illuminated

No electrons are ejected below the cutoff frequency
regardless of intensity
Photoelectric Effect Feature 4
 Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy
on light frequency
 Classical Prediction

There should be no relationship between the frequency
of the light and the electric kinetic energy

The kinetic energy should be related to the intensity of
the light
 Experimental Result

The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
increases with increasing light frequency
Photoelectric Effect Features,
Summary
 The experimental results contradict all four
classical predictions
 Einstein extended Planck’s concept of
quantization to electromagnetic waves
 All electromagnetic radiation can be
considered a stream of quanta, now called
photons
 A photon of incident light gives all its energy
hƒ to a single electron in the metal
Photoelectric Effect, Work
Function
 Electrons ejected from the surface of the
metal and not making collisions with other
metal atoms before escaping possess the
maximum kinetic energy Kmax
 Kmax = hƒ – φ
 φ is called the work function
 The work function represents the minimum energy
with which an electron is bound in the metal
Some Work Function Values
Photon Model Explanation of
the Photoelectric Effect
 Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy
on light intensity
 Kmax is independent of light intensity
 K depends on the light frequency and the work
function
 Time interval between incidence of light and
ejection of the photoelectron
 Each photon can have enough energy to eject an
electron immediately
Photon Model Explanation of
the Photoelectric Effect, cont.
 Dependence of ejection of electrons on
light frequency
 There is a failure to observe photoelectric
effect below a certain cutoff frequency,
which indicates the photon must have
more energy than the work function in
order to eject an electron
 Without enough energy, an electron cannot
be ejected, regardless of the light intensity
Photon Model Explanation of
the Photoelectric Effect, final
 Dependence of photoelectron kinetic
energy on light frequency
 Since Kmax = hƒ – φ
 As the frequency increases, the kinetic
energy will increase
 Once the energy of the work function is
exceeded
 There is a linear relationship between the
kinetic energy and the frequency
Cutoff Frequency
 The lines show the
linear relationship
between K and ƒ
 The slope of each
line is h
 The x-intercept is the
cutoff frequency
 This is the frequency
below which no
photoelectrons are
emitted
Cutoff Frequency and
Wavelength
 The cutoff frequency is related to the work
function through ƒc = φ / h
 The cutoff frequency corresponds to a cutoff
wavelength
c hc
λc  
ƒc φ
 Wavelengths greater than λc incident on a
material having a work function φ do not
result in the emission of photoelectrons
Arthur Holly Compton
 1892 - 1962
 Director of the lab at
the University of
Chicago
 Discovered the
Compton Effect
 Shared the Nobel
Prize in 1927
The Compton Effect,
Introduction
 Compton and Debye dealt with
Einstein’s idea of photon momentum
 The two groups of experimenters
accumulated evidence of the
inadequacy of the classical wave theory
 The classical wave theory of light failed
to explain the scattering of x-rays from
electrons
 Compton Effect, Classical
Predictions
 According to the
classical theory, em
waves incident on
electrons should:
 have radiation pressure
that should cause the
electrons to accelerate
 set the electrons
oscillating
Compton Effect, Observations
 Compton’s
experiments showed
that, at any given
angle, only one
frequency of
radiation is
observed
Compton Effect, Explanation
 The results could be explained by
treating the photons as point-like
particles having energy hƒ
 Assume the energy and momentum of
the isolated system of the colliding
photon-electron are conserved
 This scattering phenomena is known as
the Compton effect
 Compton Shift Equation
 The graphs show the
scattered x-ray for various
angles
 The shifted peak, λ’ is
caused by the scattering of
free electrons
h
λ'  λo   1  cos θ 
mec
 This is called the Compton
shift equation
Compton Wavelength
 The unshifted wavelength, λo, is caused
by x-rays scattered from the electrons
that are tightly bound to the target
atoms
 The Compton wavelength is
h
 0002
. 43 nm
mec
Photons and Waves Revisited
 Some experiments are best explained by the
photon model
 Some are best explained by the wave model
 We must accept both models and admit that
the true nature of light is not describable in
terms of any single classical model
 Also, the particle model and the wave model
of light complement each other
Louis de Broglie
 1892 – 1987
 Originally studied
history
 Was awarded the
Nobel Prize in 1929
for his prediction of
the wave nature of
electrons
Wave Properties of Particles
 Louis de Broglie postulated that
because photons have both wave and
particle characteristics, perhaps all
forms of matter have both properties
 The de Broglie wavelength of a
particle is
h h
λ 
p mv
Frequency of a Particle
 In an analogy with photons, de Broglie
postulated that a particle would also have a
frequency associated with it
E
ƒ
h
 These equations present the dual nature of
matter
 particle nature, m and v
 wave nature, λ and ƒ
Davisson-Germer Experiment
 If particles have a wave nature, then
under the correct conditions, they
should exhibit diffraction effects
 Davisson and Germer measured the
wavelength of electrons
 This provided experimental confirmation
of the matter waves proposed by de
Broglie
Complementarity
 The principle of complementarity
states that the wave and particle
models of either matter or radiation
complement each other
 Neither model can be used exclusively
to describe matter or radiation
adequately
 Electron Microscope
 The electron microscope
depends on the wave
characteristics of electrons
 The electron microscope has
a high resolving power
because it has a very short
wavelength
 Typically, the wavelengths of
the electrons are about 100
times shorter than that of
visible light
Quantum Particle
 The quantum particle is a new model
that is a result of the recognition of the
dual nature
 Entities have both particle and wave
characteristics
 We must choose one appropriate
behavior in order to understand a
particular phenomenon
Active Figure 40.20

(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

Ideal Particle vs. Ideal Wave
 An ideal particle has zero size
 Therefore, it is localized in space
 An ideal wave has a single frequency
and is infinitely long
 Therefore,it is unlocalized in space
 A localized entity can be built from
infinitely long waves
Particle as a Wave Packet
 Multiple waves are superimposed so that one
of its crests is at x = 0
 The result is that all the waves add
constructively at x = 0
 There is destructive interference at every
point except x = 0
 The small region of constructive interference
is called a wave packet
 The wave packet can be identified as a particle
Wave Envelope

 The blue line represents the envelope

function
 This envelope can travel through space with a
different speed than the individual waves
Active Figure 40.21

(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

 Speeds Associated with Wave
Packet
 The phase speed of a wave in a wave packet
is given by
v phase  ω
k
 This is the rate of advance of a crest on a single
wave
 The group speed is given by

v g  dω
dk
 This is the speed of the wave packet itself
Speeds, cont.
 The group speed can also be expressed
in terms of energy and momentum
dE d  p 2  1
vg      2p   u
dp dp  2m  2m

 This indicates that the group speed of

the wave packet is identical to the speed
of the particle that it is modeled to
represent
Electron Diffraction, Set-Up
Electron Diffraction,
Experiment
 Parallel beams of mono-energetic
electrons that are incident on a double
slit
 The slit widths are small compared to
the electron wavelength
 An electron detector is positioned far
from the slits at a distance much
greater than the slit separation
 Electron Diffraction, cont.
 If the detector collects electrons
for a long enough time, a typical
wave interference pattern is
produced
 This is distinct evidence that
electrons are interfering, a
wave-like behavior
 The interference pattern
becomes clearer as the number
of electrons reaching the screen
increases
Active Figure 40.23

(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

Electron Diffraction, Equations
 A minimum occurs when
λ h
dθsin  or θsinθ  
2 2 pd
 This shows the dual nature of the electron
 The electrons are detected as particles at a
localized spot at some instant of time
 The probability of arrival at that spot is determined
by finding the intensity of two interfering waves
Electron Diffraction, Closed
Slits
 If one slit is closed, the
maximum is centered around
the opening
 Closing the other slit
produces another maximum
centered around that opening
 The total effect is the blue line
 It is completely different from
the interference pattern (red
curve)
Electron Diffraction Explained
 An electron interacts with both slits
simultaneously
 If an attempt is made to determine
experimentally which slit the electron goes
through, the act of measuring destroys the
interference pattern
 It is impossible to determine which slit the electron
goes through
 In effect, the electron goes through both slits
 The wave components of the electron are present
at both slits at the same time
 Werner Heisenberg
 1901 – 1976
 Developed matrix
mechanics
 Many contributions
include:
 Uncertainty principle

Rec’d Nobel Prize in 1932
 Prediction of two forms
of molecular hydrogen
 Theoretical models of
the nucleus
The Uncertainty Principle,
Introduction
 In classical mechanics, it is possible, in
principle, to make measurements with
arbitrarily small uncertainty
 Quantum theory predicts that it is
fundamentally impossible to make
simultaneous measurements of a
particle’s position and momentum with
infinite accuracy
Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle, Statement
 The Heisenberg uncertainty principle
states: if a measurement of the position
of a particle is made with uncertainty ∆x
and a simultaneous measurement of its
x component of momentum is made
with uncertainty ∆p, the product of the
two uncertainties can never be smaller
than h
xpx 
2
Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle, Explained
 It is physically impossible to measure
simultaneously the exact position and
exact momentum of a particle
 The inescapable uncertainties do not
arise from imperfections in practical
measuring instruments
 The uncertainties arise from the
quantum structure of matter
Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle, Another Form
 Another form of the uncertainty principle
can be expressed in terms of energy
and time
h
E t 
2
 This suggests that energy conservation
can appear to be violated by an amount
∆E as long as it is only for a short time
interval ∆t