As reported by

Earl Christopher M. Segales

Sept 12, 2009
Definitions of religion
Two Dimensions:
2.Functional (what is the purpose for the
individual and society?)
 ‘a system of beliefs and practices by means of
which a group of people struggles with the
ultimate problems of human life’
 Tends to be too inclusive
3.Substantive (what are it contents?)
 ‘refers to the existence of supernatural beings
that have a governing effect on life’
 Tends to be too exclusive
RELIGION—FUNCTIONALIST
PERSPECTIVE
Emile Durkheim
 Religion: a unified system of beliefs and practices
related to sacred things, which are set apart.
 Distinguished between the sacred and the profane
 Totemism: the simplest & most basic form of
religion
 Totems had churingas (drawings) representing a clan’s
emblem.
 Society is the real object of religious veneration
 Society is epitomized in the form of the totem.

 Religion reinforces the collective conscience

(shared values and moral beliefs)
 In collective worship, members express and
understand the moral bonds which unite them.
RELIGION—FUNCTIONALIST
PERSPECTIVE
Bronislaw Malinowski
• Religion reinforces social norms and values. It
promotes social solidarity.
• It serves as a ‘cushion’ to crises of life (anxiety and
tension)
• Rituals reduce the feeling of uneasiness by providing
confidence and a sense of control.
• Religion promotes social solidarity by dealing with
situations of emotional stress that threaten the stability
of society.
e.g. Death  the bereaved person is comforted by relatives
RELIGION—FUNCTIONALIST
PERSPECTIVE
Talcott Parsons
 Human action is directed and controlled by norms
provided by the social system.
 Since religion is embedded in this system, it
provides guidelines for conduct which are expressed
in a variety of norms. E.g. 10 Commandments and
Laws
 Two categories of human problems:
1. Fortuitous events are inevitable and unpredictable.
 Religion enables people to restoring the normal
pattern of life.
2. The feeling of uncertainty towards the future is evident.
 Religion becomes a ‘tonic for self-confidence’.
RELIGION—FUNCTIONALIST
PERSPECTIVE
What does religion do?
2.It maintains social stability by relieving
tension and frustration that could disrupt
social order.
3.It makes sense of all experiences no matter
how meaningless or contradictory they
appear.
4.It provides a range of answers to life issues.
5.It strengthens the unity among its believers.
RELIGION—A MARXIST
PERSPECTIVE
 Religion is an illusion which eases the pain
produced by exploitation and oppression. It
justifies the subordination of the subject class and
the domination of the ruling class.
 “Opium of the people”  stupefies and disillusions
the people into false notions:
3. It promises a paradise of eternal bliss because
there is Heaven.
4. It allows poverty to become tolerable because of
afterlife’s reward.
5. A supernatural intervention is possible.
6. It justifies the social order between the rich and
the poor.
RELIGION—A MARXIST
PERSPECTIVE
Religion is an instrument of oppression. It acts
as mechanism of social control which
maintains system of exploitation. It prevents
social change.
Religion distorts reality. It allows false
consciousness to pervade among the workers.
Historical evidence: Hinduism caste system;
Divine Right (mandate of heaven) monarchy
In a truly socialist society, individuals revolve
around themselves, and religion disappears.
RELIGION—A neo-MARXIST
PERSPECTIVE
While Christianity originated as a way of
coping with exploitation among oppressed
groups, it could become a source of resistance
to the oppressors and thus a force of change.
Religion still exists in the context of an
oppressed society.
Religion has some relative autonomy as a
separate entity. It may be the only available
channel to bring about a social revolution.
E.g. EDSA revolution as supported by the
Catholic Church; Liberation Theology in Latin
America
Gender, feminism and
religion
Gender Inequality in Religion
Main premise: Religion is a product of
patriarchy rather than capitalism.
Acc. to Karen Armstrong, early history shows
the women played a central role in the
spiritual conquest.
E.g. the idea of Mother Goddess or Mother
Earth
Turning point: foreign invasions
 Before=polytheism; After=monotheism
 Before=roster of gods & goddesses;
After=Yahweh/Allah/Jehovah
Gender, feminism and
religion
Acc. to Jean Holm, women have a subordinate role
in religion than men.
Some examples:
 In Japanese folk religions, women organize public
rituals while men perform these.
 In Chinese beliefs,
Yin=women=passive=submission;
Yang=men=active=aggression
 In Buddhism, women=nuns; men=priests  priest
are more senior to nuns
 In Hinduism, women cannot enter shrines or
perform rituals when they are menstruating or
pregnant because these are regarded as pollutants
to the sacredness of the activities/objects,
Gender, feminism and
religion
Acc. to Simone de Beauvoir,
 Religion gives women false beliefs that they will be
compensated for their sufferings on earth by
equality in heaven.
 Religion can be used by oppressors (men) to control
the oppressed ones (women).
Acc. to Nawal El Saadawi,
 In the Arab world, patriarchal dominance leads to
prostitution, slavery, and abortion.
 Acc. to Islam, men are permitted to marry several
wives (but women can’t have many husbands), and
men could divorce their spouses instantaneously.
Religion and social
change
For Functionalists, Marxists, & Feminists,
religion is a conservative force : it prevents
changes and maintains the status quo. It will
also maintain traditional customs and beliefs.
Fundamentalism: involves the reassertion of
traditional moral and religious values against
changes.
E.g. Islam Iranian revolution ; Liberation
theology Latin America
Here, society affects religions. There social factors
or events which trigger transformation in religion.
Max Weber—The Protestant
Ethic and the Spirit of
Capitalism
For him, religion affects society.
 Social Action Theory: human action is directed
by meanings and motives.
 Worldview: the image of the world held by
members.
 Religion as a worldview affects social action.
Ascetic Calvinist Protestantism propelled
capitalism.
 Elect: those chosen by God to go to heaven
even before birth.
 It is difficult to ascertain whether you are an
Max Weber—The Protestant
Ethic and the Spirit of
Capitalism
The ethic was ASCETIC  encouraging abstinence
from life’s pleasure, and rigorous discipline. It
produced individuals who worked hard in their
careers.
Making money was a concrete indication of
success in one’s calling.
Protestants attacked time-wasting, laziness, idle
gossiping and excessive sleep. Such acts impede
productivity.
The spirit of capitalism involves a set of ideas,
ethics, and values. The essence of capitalism is
the pursuit of profit and forever renewed profit.
Max Weber—The Protestant
Ethic and the Spirit of
Capitalism
MAIN POINT:
Proper Ethics (Frugality + Efficiency + Self-
Discipline) More Productivity  Higher Profit
 Better Societal Reputation  Admiration
and Respect from others  Exemplary
Behavior  Achieved Status and Constructed
Notion of being an ELECT  HEAVEN
 Such ethics were at the core of capitalist
mentality.
Religion and social
change
Merideth B. McGuire:
Four Factors determining the religion’s
potential for social change:
1. BELIEFS. Religions which emphasize strong
adherence to moral codes are more likely to
produce members who are critical of society.
2. CULTURE. Is religion vital to the lives of a society?
3. SOCIAL LOCATION. Does religion affect social
structure?
4. INTERNAL ORGANIZATION. Religions with a strong
sense of authority have more chances of affecting
events.
RELIGIOUS
ORGANIZATIONS
Church
Refers to a large religious organization.
Individuals do not necessarily have to
demonstrate their faith all the time.
Closely related to the state. The church stabilizes
and determines the political order. Ideologically
conservative and supports the status quo.
Its members are not expected to withdraw from
society. It affirms and accepts life.
The notion of the church derives its force from the
growth of Christianity and historic forms of
Catholic, Orthodox, and Coptic churches.
It is an essentially historical phenomena which
might find itself hard to exist in modern societies.
RELIGIOUS
ORGANIZATIONS
Denominations
They share several but not all of the supposed
features of the church. What does it entail?
1. It does not have universal appeal to society
2. It does not identify with the state and
approves the separation of church and state.
3. It does not claim a monopoly of religious truth.
4. It is usually conservative.
RELIGIOUS
ORGANIZATIONS
Sects
Characteristics are diametrically opposed to
those of churches. How is a sect different?
1. Smaller and more strongly organized
2. Connected with the lower strata
3. Rejects the values of the world.
4. It s members may be expected to withdraw
from society.
5. There is no hierarchy, rather a charismatic
leader is in charge.
RELIGIOUS
ORGANIZATIONS
Sects
Products of the ‘upheavals of the reformation’
Tend to be type of subculture
Exercise a stronger control over the
individuals’ lives
The members are expected to know the
tenets and practice the rituals, otherwise,
they may be excluded.
E.g. People’s Temple  started by Rev. Jones
in Cali.
 Members ought sign confessions of their crimes
they had not committed. Then, subject to public
RELIGIOUS
ORGANIZATIONS
Cults
Highly individualistic expression, varying with
personal experiences and interpretations.
Cult: a closely-knit group organized around
some common themes and interests but
lacking any sharply defined and exclusive
belief system.
No conception of heresy
Lack of fixed doctrine: a matter of
interpretative belief
RELIGIOUS
ORGANIZATIONS
Roy Wallis—The Elementary forms of the
Religious Life
 Three kinds of religious movement:
World-rejecting
 Can be found in sects. There is a definite
conception of God.
 Actively seeks change
 Expects God’s intervention to save the world.
 Limited contact with outside world
 E.g. Unification Church of Rev. Sun Myung
Moon
RELIGIOUS
ORGANIZATIONS
World-accommodating
Usually offshoots of a major church or
denomination.
Neither accepts nor rejects the world as it is,
rather lives in it.
More concerned with religious rather than
worldly questions.
Seek to restore the purity of religion which has
been lost
E.g. Pentecostalists believe that the Holy Spirit
is lost in other Christian religions.
RELIGIOUS
ORGANIZATIONS
World-affirming
May have no collective ritual of worship
It may lack any developed theology of ethics.
Little social control. It accepts the world for
what it is.
Salvation is seen as a personal achievement
and as a solution to personal problems.
It offers followers the potential to achieve this
salvation.
E.g. Transcendental Meditation meditate
20mins. Twice a day for ‘unbounded awareness’
RELIGIOUS
ORGANIZATIONS
Middle-ground
Some organizations might have a combination
of these qualities.
These result to the ‘middle-ground’ status
E.g. Healthy Happy Holy Organization and
Divine Light Mission.  allow members to have
an alternative lifestyle.
RELIGIOUS
ORGANIZATIONS
New Age type
People withdrew from the traditional religious
orgs and have begun to look inside
themselves in search of the spiritual.
Salvation: it comes from discovering and
perfecting oneself.
To experience the spiritual and
transcendental through nature.
E.g. astrology, tarot cards, spirit masters,
magic, Feng Shui, witchcraft
RELIGIOUS
ORGANIZATIONS
New Age type
It is a response to the acknowledged failure of the
scientific and materialist worldview to deliver
meaning.
It is a product of modernity. It appeals to affluent
members of society.
They have experienced personal development
themselves and therefore find it plausible to
believe that there is potential to be discovered
within.
It is a symptom of extreme relativism because
your belief becomes subjective.  due to the
decline of religion
Modernity gives people a multiplicity of roles. The
New Age offers ways of finding an identity.
Secularization
Industrialization and scientific knowledge led to
this. It is the decline of religion.
Acc. to Weber, rationalization would erode
religious influence.
Acc. to Marx, a motion of events would lead to its
disappearance.
Acc. to Comte, human societies passed to 3
stages:
1. Theological: religious and superstitious beliefs
were dominant
2. Metaphysical: philosophy becomes more important
3. Positivism: Science would dominate human
thinking.
 The role of religion in society weakens.
Secularization
Disengagement: the church withdrawing
from wider society. E.g. obsolescence of
excommunication
Differentiation: separation of religion from
state affairs.
Social differentiation: the church has now
much less opportunity to get involved in
non-religious spheres. This was brought
about by rationalization.
Societalization: a process in which social life
becomes fragmented and ceases to be
locally based. People interact at a higher
level of community rather than a smaller
Religion and
Globalization
Peter Beyer (Three Directions of Religion)
Religion take a relatively marginal position in
a global society. Globalization leads to the
world becoming dominated by specialized
sub-systems.
Global capitalist economy on money matters;
global political system (UN) on bureaucratic
leadership matters; global science on matters
of ‘truth’.
Given these, where can religion position
itself?
Religion and
Globalization
Peter Beyer
Since everything is global, it leaves little or no
room for identities to develop. Who am I
really? What is my position in this global
setting?
Religion can become a source of identity. It
can provide answers to questions.
Lastly, religion can consolidate different
faiths. E.g. environmentalism: genuine
concern for Mother Earth
Religion and
Globalization
Samuel Huntington
There is clash of civilizations (a cultural
identity). The world is divided into language,
history, and traditions.
Religion can fill the between such differences.
There is evidence of unsecularization.
E.g. The end of socialism in USSR signaled the
start of fundamentalism in Eastern Europe.
Religion is still very much important in the
global society.
Religion and
Globalization
Karen Armstrong (Islam & Modernization)
There is nothing inherently incompatible with the
West and Muslim worlds. Rather, economic and
political factors led to increased tensions.
Islam advocates the sharing of resources, and at
the same trend of towards greater equality was
evident in some Western societies.
Muslim countries (Egypt, Sudan, Libya) ‘idolized’
Western models of development. Muslim countries
were supported by the Western nations.
However, only a small percentage benefitted from
such investments. Much of the conflict started
from within.
This was aggravated by the entry of the West.
High Modernity,
Postmodernity and Religion
Anthony Giddens
Features of high modernity (a step higher
than modernity):
1. Reflexivity: people are willing to change
beliefs in order to gain to new knowledge and
experience
2. Separation of time and space: advent of the
Internet and similar technology.
3. Disembedding: social interaction becomes
restructured from local context to global
arena.
High Modernity,
Postmodernity and Religion
Anthony Giddens
High modernity provides the conditions of
religion’s resurgence. People make more
conscious choices about who they are and
what they wish to become.
Some problems:
1. Modernity=rationality; High Modernity=
increase of doubt. Which one should I choose?
2. Existential questions: Why do I exist? Where
do I go when I die?
High Modernity,
Postmodernity and Religion
Anthony Giddens
As people try to make sense of their lives in
reflexive way, they are in a moral vacuum.
There is no ground or any basis since
everything is subjective and open to change.
In response, religion particularly
fundamentalism begins to emerge.
High Modernity,
Postmodernity and Religion
Zygmunt Bauman (Religion and Postmodernity)
Postmodernity tears down/deconstructs any
claims to universal truth. Postmodernity is a state
of mind.
“Postmodernity is a shopping mall overflowing
with goods whose major use is the joy of
purchasing them…indefinitely.”
Once the rational basis of life has been torn down,
it leads to the renewed emphasis on the ethical
and moral.
Morality, as a facet of religion, becomes a matter
of personal choice. In postmodernity, people seek
a process of self-constitution. Rather than
achieving things, they want to be somebody.
Again, religion is most likely to enter the picture
Discussion questions:
1. Is atheism really the absence of religion, or
perhaps a more radical worldview?
2. What is social relevance of religion in your
respective countries?
3. In what ways can religion impede or support
development in your respective countries?