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MEMORY Remembering and Forgetting

As a psychological process, Memory refers to the mental system that encodes, stores, organizes, alters, and retrieves information. (Coon)

Different aspects/ components/ kinds of memory have been studied/ proposed.

Retrospective and Prospective memory; Implicit and Explicit memory ; Sensory - Short-term Long-term memory Long-term memory - Procedural Declarative : Episodic & Semantic

 Retrospective and Prospective memory :

Retrospective memory is that which pertains to PAST experience (the more common meaning of memory) Prospective memory is that which pertains to the FUTURE - it could be in terms of TIME, or EVENT.

 Implicit and Explicit memory : Implicit memory (or memories) lie outside conscious awareness.
Explicit memory (or memories) are those that can be actively brought into conscious awareness.

The process of memory is best understood in terms of three subprocesses :

Encoding taking in information,

Storage, Retrieval getting information out of storage.

 Sensory, Short term, & Long-term memory: The most common model followed in the study of memory (the AtkinsonShiffrin model, dual-store, or MODAL model):
Incoming information Rehearsal

Sensory memory Not attended to Forgotten

Selective attention

Short term memory Not coded in STM

Successfully Coded for LTM storage

Longterm memory

Forgotten/displaced

Sensory memory : Processing similar to attention. Distinction between iconic memory (visual), and echoic memory (acoustic).

Short-term Memory (STM): Although storage in STM is for a short duration, the processing is complex.

 Limited in capacity. Form of the code Visual or Auditory. Chunking - the information is stored in units (chunks), each with a size of 7 + 2 (magic number). If LTM storage is not needed, then the information is held in STM for a short duration, and then forgotten (lost), or displaced, to make space for new information. For LTM storage, REHEARSAL takes place, and then information is sent to LTM.
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 Retrieval from STM involves a search, which may be in the form of serial search, or parallel search. In general, parallel search is more economical in terms of time and effort. The nature of the search depends on the nature of the material.
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Ques : Exact nature of information processing in STM ? ---------------------------------------------------------------Ans. ONE VIEW : Working memory model (Baddeley & Hitch). Short-term Working memory Contains the following components : Phonological (articulatory) loop, dealing with auditory/acoustic information; Visuo-spatial scratchpad (sketchpad), dealing with visual information; Central executive .
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Model of Working Memory

(Baddeley & Hitch)
Visuo-spatial sketchpad Episodic memory Sensory Store

CENTRAL EXECUTIVE

Semantic memory Procedural memory

Articulatory
Loop
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 Central executive - the controller, or central processing unit.

Involves ATTENTION, Decides which information will be focused on, and how, Decides allocation of limited mental resources to cognitive tasks.

Articulatory (phonological) loop deals with speech- and sound-related aspects ; Visuo-spatial sketch-pad (scratch-pad)deals with visual-spatial aspects.
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Long- term Memory (LTM) : 1. Information-processing and storage seem to be different in LTM compared to STM. LTM processing and storage is more complex - help in understanding how information is stored over long periods of time; the role of memory in language-reated processes, the role of language in memory
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2. Information that is to be transferred to LTM from STM is REHEARSED - two kinds of rehearsal :
Maintenance Rehearsal o Elaborative Rehearsal
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3. Two forms of storage commonly found

in LTM - sometimes called the DUALCODE HYPOTHESIS:
Semantic (in the form of meaning),

Visual (in the form of images)

The nature of the codes may be verbal and /or pictorial.

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4. LTM consists of EPISODIC, SEMANTIC, and PROCEDURAL MEMORY. EPISODIC and SEMANTIC MEMORY are declarative, whereas PROCEDURAL MEMORY is not.

5. Storage in LTM is highly organized systematically, and hierarchically. Associations form an important basis of hierarchical organization.
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6. LEVELS-OF-PROCESSING approach (Craik & Lockhart) : Level-wise processing is found along with hierarchical organization Level 1: Perception Level 2: Structural features are analyzed Level 3: The meaning is analyzed 7. Processing (and retrieval) is influenced by CONTEXT-DEPENDENT MEMORY and STATE-DEPENDENT MEMORY.
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 Context-dependent memory - refers to those instances of memory in which recall of information is better when it is done in the same context as the one in which information was taken in. State-dependent memory - is an extension of context-dependent memory : recall of specific information is better when done under the same state as that which the information was taken in e.g. mood, or state of consciousness (for example, sober versus drunken).
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8. LTM processes indicate the role of other sub-processes in memoryCONSTRUCTION and RE-CONSTRUCTION - aspects usually not found in STM. Construction and Re-construction refer to the building up of specific experiences of information as understood in the light of an individuals existing stored information (e.g. schemas and prototypes).
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 Construction and Re-construction and show that information is NOT mechanically stored in LTM. Instead, it is modified in the light of existing information - sometimes showing the effects of associations as well as personality.

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9. As part of construction/ re-construction, two kinds of modification in the original information may be noticed, namely, a) Levelling - some strange or new features are de-emphasized, or simply excluded because they are considered unimportant or unnecessary. b) Sharpening some aspects are overemphasized, and highlighted added on to the original information, because they are considered especially important and necessary.
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10. RETRIEVAL , or bringing back of information from LTM - also a complex process. Commonly experienced difficulty in retrieval: the TIP-OF-THE-TONGUE (TOT) phenomenon (Brown & McNeill). Association of different kinds - key factor underlying retrieval. More details about LTM can be known by studying FORGETTING.
Ques: Does Retrieval necessarily require activation of STM before actual responding ?
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Putting together information regarding Sensory memory, STM, and LTM, three broad sub-processes can be inferred : ENCODING STORAGE RETRIEVAL Storage and Retrieval assume Encoding. Storage is necessary but not sufficient for Retrieval. Storage in LTM also involves complex coding.
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FORGETTING Forgetting is the inability to recall or remember information that has been encoded and stored. Ques: 1) WHY does forgetting take place ?
2) Is information that is once encoded and stored , never forgotten ?
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Why does Forgetting take place ? Several explanations proposed: Encoding failure the information was not taken in properly, in the first place. Trace decay - when information is encoded, it is stored in the form of memory traces (neural representations). Forgetting occurs because these memory traces fade with time, if they are not used. This idea is currently not considered a strong explanation for forgetting.
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 Interference - new information may interfere with, and thereby block the recall of existing information (retroactive inhibition, that is, backward acting interference).
The opposite may also happen - old information may interfere with, and block, the encoding/ storage of new information (proactive inhibition, that is, forward acting interference).
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 Which of the two kinds of interference retroactive, or proactive - is found to be stronger ? Experimental procedure to compare the two kinds of interference (beforeafter experimental procedure): A random sample is selected, and randomly assigned to four groups, Group IA, Group IB, Group IIA, and Group II B.
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All groups are asked to memorize lists of nonsense syllables (e.g. ConsonantVowel-Consonant [CVC], CCC, etc.) Grp IA (Exptal RI) : Learn Learn Rest Asked to List A List B interval recall List A Grp IB (Control RI): Learn (Other Rest Asked to List A activity) interval recall List A
continued.
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Grp II A (Exptal PI) Learns Learns Rest Asked to List B List A interval recall List A

Grp II B (Control PI) (Other Learns Rest Asked to activity) List A interval recall List A ---------------------------------------------------------------When the groups are compared, the relative effects of RI and PI can be known.
Ques: Specifically, which groups should be compared ?
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 Encoding specificity:
If encoding was done in a specific context retrieval would be difficult if there is a mismatch between the cue for retrieval, and stored information in terms of the context.
Retrieval is also facilitated when there is a match between the original state, and the state at the time of recall.

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Tip-of the- tongue (TOT) phenomenon represents a case of forgetting because of retrieval difficulty.
Ques: What would be the best explanation of TOT phenomenon ?

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 Motivated forgetting : Forgetting occurs because one is motivated to forget. Two views/ forms of motivation o Repression (Freudian view) : we forget because the to-be-remembered information is threatening : this information is repressed, or pushed down into the unconscious experienced as forgetting. o The Zeigarnik effect : Information that arouses tension is LESS LIKELY to be forgotten than information that is neutral or non-tension-arousing.
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(Experimental evidence of Zeigarnik effect : The recall of finished or unfinished tasks).

Notable feature - Both views make opposite predictions : Repression what is anxiety-arousing is forgotten more easily. Zeigarnik effect what is anxiety-arousing is forgotten less easily.

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METHODS USED IN THE STUDY OF MEMORY

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Serial recall Paired associate recall Anticipatory recall Recognition Re-production Dual task technique

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Some practical suggestions for better memory : Actively rehearse/ repeat learned material wherever possible, rehearsal should be elaborative, not maintenance. Minimize interference. Use mnemonic devices e.g. method of loci (spatially locate pieces of information in different parts of the physical environment), make acrostics, or acronyms that are personally easy to remember.
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Whole versus Part learning : Depending on the nature of the material, it should be memorized / learned as a whole, or learned after dividing into suitable smaller units. If the material involves basically a single principle, it is better learned by the whole method.

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 Mass versus Spaced learning : Time spent in one sitting should be long enough to assimilate the learned material, but should not cause mental fatigue.
Recommended : Short breaks between long sessions.

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