Biomechanics of Locomotion

D. Gordon E. Robertson, PhD, FCSB

Biomechanics, Laboratory, School of Human Kinetics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada

Quantitative Domains
Temporal
phases (stance/swing) and events (footstrike, toe-off), stride rate

Electromyography
muscle activation patterns

Kinematic (motion description)

stride length, velocity, ranges of motion, acceleration

Kinetic (causes of motion)

ground reaction forces, pressure patterns, joint forces, moments of force, work, energy and power

Temporal Analysis
Stride time (s) Stride rate = 1/time (/s) Stride cadence = 120 rate (b/min) Instrumentation
Photocells and timers Videography (1 frame = 1/30 second) Metronome

Donovan Bailey sets world record (9.835) despite slowest reaction time (0.174) of finalists

Electromyography
Bortec system Noraxon system

Delsys electrodes

Mega system

EMG of normal walking

rectus femoris vastus lateralis

gait initiation

strides tibialis anterior

gastrocnemius

biceps femoris heel switch

EMG of normal walking

rectus femoris vastus lateralis rectus femoris contracts twice per cycle, oncetibialis in early anterior stance and once in late stance gastrocnemius

biceps femoris heel switch

EMG of normal walking

rectus femoris vastus lateralis biceps femoris has one longer contraction in late swing and early stance, synchronous with one burst of rectus femoris

tibialis anterior
gastrocnemius

biceps femoris heel switch

EMG of normal walking

tibialis anterior has two bursts of activity one in mid-swing and one during early stance. It is very active at initiation.
rectus femoris vastus lateralis

tibialis anterior
gastrocnemius

biceps femoris heel switch

EMG of normal walking

gastrocnemius has one long contraction throughout stance.
It is asynchronous with tibialis anterior. rectus femoris vastus lateralis

tibialis anterior
gastrocnemius

biceps femoris heel switch

Kinematic Analysis
Linear position
Ruler, tape measure, optical

Linear velocity
radar gun, photo-optical timer

radar gun

Linear acceleration
Accelerometry, videography

miniature accelerometers

Motion Capture
Cinefilm, video or infrared video Subject is filmed and locations of joint centres are digitized
Panasonic videocamera Basler charge-coupled device (CCD) camera

Vicon infra-red camera

Gait Characteristics Walking

a walking

stride length

step length

b
left foot right foot

stance phase, left foot

swing phase, left foot

one gait cycle

double-support left foot-strike right toe-off left toe-off right foot-strike

single-support time

Gait Characteristics Running/Sprinting

a running/sprinting

stride length

step length

b
left foot right foot

stance phase, left foot

swing phase, left foot

one gait cycle

flight phase right foot-strike left foot-strike right toe-off left toe-off time

Video data

Motion Capture (e.g., SIMI or Vicon)

F-Scan data

EMG data

Force platform data

3D motion data

Passive Infrared Motion Capture (e.g., Vicon or M.A.C.) Infrared video cameras M.A.C. system

Kistler force platforms

Active Infrared Motion Capture

NDIs Optotrak

Infrared Infrared video emitting cameras diodes

Gait and Movement Analysis Laboratory

Motion capture system for marker trajectories Force platforms for ground reactions Electromyography for muscle activity Pressure mapping systems for in-shoe pressure patterns

3D Geometric Model (Visual3D)

from markers to joint centres and stick-figure of body

from stick-figures to geometrical solids of revolution with known inertial properties

Kinetic Analysis
Causes of motion Forces and moments of force Work, energy and power Impulse and momentum Inverse Dynamics derives forces and moments from kinematics and body segment parameters (mass, centre of gravity, and moment of inertia)

Normal Walking Example

Female subject Speed was 1.77 m/s (fast) IFS = ipsilateral foot-strike ITO = ipsilateral toe-off CFS = contralateral foot-strike CTO = contralateral toe-off

Results Angular velocity tells whether joint is flexing or extending

10

Dorsiflexion
0 Plantar flexion Trial: 2SFN3 Ang. velocity Moment Power

-10

Moment of force records whether flexors or extensors are performing work

Power quantifies whether work done was positive or negative

100

Dorsiflexors

0 Plantar flexors

-100

100

Concentric

0 Eccentric

-100

-200CFS ITO 0.0 0.2

IFS CTO 0.4 0.6 Time (s) 0.8

CFS ITO 1.0 1.2

Ankle angular velocity, moment of force and power Dorsiflexors produce dorsiflexion during swing Plantar flexors control dorsiflexion

10

Dorsiflexion
0 Plantar flexion Trial: 2SFN3 Ang. velocity Moment Power

-10

100

Dorsiflexors

0 Plantar flexors

-100

100

Concentric

Large burst of power by plantar flexors for push-off

-100

Eccentric

-200CFS ITO 0.0 0.2

IFS CTO 0.4 0.6 Time (s) 0.8

CFS ITO 1.0 1.2

Knee angular velocity, moment of force and power Negative work by knee flexors to control knee extension prior to foot-strike another to cushion weight-acceptance Negative work by knee extensors to control flexion at push-off

10 Extension 0 -10 Flexion Trial: 2SFN3 Ang. velocity Moment Power

100

Extensors

0 Flexors

-100

100

Concentric

0 Eccentric

-100

-200CFS ITO 0.0 0.2

IFS CTO 0.4 0.6 Time (s)

CFS ITO 0.8 1.0 1.2

Hip angular velocity, moment of force and power

10

Flexion
0 Extension Trial: 2SFN3 Ang. velocity Moment Power

-10

Positive work by hip flexors to swing thigh & flex knee Positive work by hip extensors to extend hip in early stance
Negative work by hip flexors to control extension

100

Flexors

0 Extensors Concentric 100

-100

0 Eccentric

-100

-200CFS ITO 0.0 0.2

IFS CTO 0.4 0.6 Time (s) 0.8

CFS ITO 1.0 1.2

Solid-Ankle, Cushioned Heel (SACH) Prostheses

Ankle angular velocity, moment of force and power of SACH foot prosthesis Power dissipation during weight acceptance and push-off

10.

Dorsiflexing
0. -10. Plantar flexing 100. Dorsiflexor

Trial: WB24MH-S Ang. velocity Net moment Power

0.
-100. 100. 0. -100. Eccentric -200. ITO 0.0 0.2 IFS CTO 0.4 0.6 0.8 Time (s) CFS ITO 1.0 1.2 1.4

Plantar flexor Concentric

No power produced during push-off

FlexFoot Prostheses (energy-storing)

Original model

Recent models

Ankle angular velocity, moment of force and power of FlexFoot prosthesis Some energy returned during push-off

10.

Dorsiflexing
0. -10. Plantar flexing 100. 0. -100. 250. 0. Dorsiflexor

Trial: WB13MH-F Ang. velocity Net moment Power

Plantar flexor Concentric

-250.
Eccentric -500. ITO 0.0 0.2 IFS CTO 0.4 0.6 Time (s) 0.8 CFS ITO 1.0 1.2

Above-knee Prostheses

Running Prostheses