AGN, accretion and Jets

Overview
• AGN classification and unification theories
• Determining black hole masses
• Jets: emission mechanisms and environmental
impact
• Accretion
 Journal club reading

∀
2nd lecture (Feb. 26th): Faranoff and Riley, 1974, MNRAS,
167, 31
∀
3rd lecture (March 4th): Arav et al., 1998, MNRAS, 297,
990
 Further reading
• AGN Active Galactic Nuclei, J. Krolik, Princeton
• Continuum Radiation Processes High Energy
Astrophysics, M. Longair, CUP (2 vols); Radiation
Processes in Astrophysics, Rybicki & Lightman, Wiley.
• Optical line radiation Astrophysics of Gaseous Nebulae
and Active Galactic Nuclei, D. Osterbrock, University
Science Books.
• Jets Beams and Jets in Astrophysics, ed. P. Hughes,
CUP, Physics of Extragalactic Radio Sources, D De
Young, Chicago U.P.
• Accretion Accretion Power in Astrophysics, Frank, King
& Raine, CUP.
Active Galactic Nuclei
 What is an AGN?
1. Active galactic nucleus: A galaxy for which the bolometric
luminosity cannot be explained by the stars contained therein.
2. Paradigm: extra luminosity is explained by the emission from gas
falling into a super massive (> 106 M0) black hole, i.e. accretion.
Note most, if not all, galaxies contain super massive black holes
but the accretion rate is too low for them to be called AGN (for
instance the Milky Way).
3. Observationally, an AGN is a galaxy with some of the following
phenomena associated with its nucleus:
(a) Radio: very small angular size and high surface brightness.
(b) Bright extended radio emission.
(c) Broad-band continuum: bright from radio to X-rays or γ-rays.
(d) Strong ionized narrow (broad) emission lines (optical to X-
rays).
(e) Luminosity variability on minutes to months timescale.
(f) High linear polarization.
The galaxy tree

Roy, 2002 PhD thesis

 How do we find AGN?
• Optical: from colour (narrow bandpass imaging) and
emission lines (spectroscopy).
• Infra-red emission, but difficult to distinguish from
starburst galaxies.
• X-rays luminosity
• γ-rays luminosity
• Radio luminosity and extended emission.
 So, detectable in all wavelength bands!
All of these techniques have their own selection
effects, thereby detecting different AGN. The
selection is redshift/orientation/environment-
dependent as well as dependent on intrinsic
differences.
 Classification of AGN
Four key parameters:
1. Luminosity from the accretion process: thermal continuum of the
accretion disk, and emission lines in the IR to X-ray resulting from
photo-ionization from the accretion process (and potentially the
inner part of the jet).
2. Existence and power of the jet: produces non-thermal emission,
particularly radio but sometimes also optical to γ-ray.
3. The existence of lobes and hotspots in sources where the jet stay
collimated, versus tails and lack of hotspots is sources where jet de-
collimates along its trajectory.
3. Orientation (obscuration and beaming).
The relative amount of energy radiated by jet varies by orders of
magnitude: radio-loud ⇔ radio-quiet. As does the luminosity from
the accretion process.
 AGN ZOO
Properties measured in the optical band, except radio. Adapted from Krolik
point- broad- broad narrow radio Varia- Polar-
name like band lines lines ble ized
yes yes yes yes yes some some
radio loud
yes yes yes yes weak weak weak
Radio
quasarquiet yes yes yes yes yes weak weak
Broad
quasarline RG no no no yes yes no no
Narrow
FRII line yes yes weak weak yes yes yes
Optical
FR I+II violent yes yes no no yes yes yes
BL
var.Lac yes yes yes yes weak some weak
Seyfert
objects1 no yes no yes weak no some
Seyfert 2
no no no yes no no no
LINERs
Seyfert 1’s have detected host galaxies of similar L to the nucleus, radio quiet
quasars have a nucleus that is much brighter than the host galaxy.
optical spectra: one method of classification

Radio
quiet

Radio
loud

LINERs and normal galaxies are also radio quiet.

 Seyfert Galaxies
• Bright stellar nucleus,
host galaxy easily
detected.
• Strong optical
emission lines used for
classification.
• Usually (not always)
In spiral host galaxies.
• Bright in X-rays.
•First described by
Seyfert in 1943.
•Type 1: broad and
narrow lines in optical.
•Type 2: narrow lines
only in optical spectra.
Circinus spiral (Seyfert 2)
 Seyfert galaxies: soft X-ray spectra
NGC 5548, Kaastra et al. 2002 NGC 1068, Kinkhabwala et al. 2002
Seyfert 1 Seyfert 2

Absorption lines are blueshifted,

indicating an outflow.
 Seyfert galaxy spectral classification
• Seyfert 1: In optical and UV: broad (up to 10000 km/s
FWHM) permitted lines (Hα, Hβ, CIV, etc.); narrow
forbidden lines ([O II], [O III], [Ne V], [O VII]); in X-ray
strong continuum (black body: disk? and a power-law:
Comptonized disk emission?) with narrow absorption lines
(O V – O VIII, N VII, C VI, Ne IX– Ne X).
• Seyfert 2 Narrow permitted (up to 1000 km/s FWHM) and
forbidden lines, very weak emission in UV. Little continuum
emission in soft X-rays. Fe Kα line and hard X-ray
continuum similar to Seyfert 1’s.
• From the width of the optical lines there is a continuum
between Seyfert 1 and Seyfert 2: e.g. Seyfert 1.5.
 Generalized to type 1 (unobscured) and type 2 (obscured)
AGN.
Unification of Seyferts, type 1 and 2 AGN

• A cartoon model of interior

of an AGN (Urry & Padovani
1995), very approximate!
• Seyfert 1: see along the jet
axis (note in general there
are no jets in Seyferts).
• Seyfert 2: see through the
obscuring torus (unlikely in
the form of a doughnut).
• Explains the lack of non-
polarized broad lines and
soft X-ray continuum in
Seyfert 2’s.
Obscured Type 2 AGN

Antonucci et al. 1994

 Ionization cone and obscuring torus

320 K

800 K

9 10 11 12 13

Wavelength (μm)

Spatial resolution is 26 mas, size is 2.1x3.4 pc

NGC 5252, Morse et al. 1998 VLTI MIDI, NGC 1068, Jaffe et al. 2004
 Evidence for the obscuring ‘torus’
• Ionization cones: Narrow line region (NLR) emission at
large distances is roughly collimated.
• Polarization: Broad lines seen in polarized light in Type
2 object. Scattering by dust (or free electrons).
• Ionizing continuum observed from Type 2 objects is
insufficient to photoionize the NLR.
• Soft X-ray absorption in Type 2 objects.
• The opening angle of the Obscuring torus is determined
by the ratio between type 1 and 2 Seyferts/AGN.
 Infra-red

• Thermal emission from

dust at 20 - 80K (often a
range) explains the
observed emission peak
at around 100µm. Up to
30% of total emission can
be radiated in this
component.
• High-temperature dust
from more central regions
of the accretion disk can
produce near-IR
emission; dust is unlikely
to survive T > 2000K.
 Physical parameters: broad-line region

Case B recombination: Lyman series lines optically
thick; other H lines optically thin.
Physical parameters of the broad line region
• Line widths >> (kT/mp)1/2 ≈ 10 kms-1 for T = 104 K. Bulk
motions therefore required. Sometimes double peak line
profiles  rotation of the emitting gas.
• Density [OIII] lines absent. Critical density for collisional
de-excitation of the upper level producing these lines is ∼
1014 m-3, so this is a lower limit for BLR density. CIII] is
present, implying density < 1016 m-3. Detailed modelling
gives a few x 1015 m-3. (Note there are other mechanisms
to de-excite, possibly invalidating density diagnostic).
• Size from reverberation mapping: ~0.01 pc.
• Structure in the form of an outflowing wind, from the
smoothness of the line profiles and the size of the BLR.
• Mass typically 2 solar masses.
 Physical parameters: narrow line region
• Density from [SII] doublet ∼ 108 - 1010 m-3
• Temperature from [OIII] line ratios 10000 - 25000K.
• Size Characteristic scale from imaging is 50 pc - 20 kpc.
Distinction sometimes made between NLR and
E(xtended)NLR. Possibility of smooth transition to BLR at
inner boundary.
• Filling factor f ∼ 10-6 -10-5.
• Velocity field Rotation usually a good first
approximation, with velocities up to 2000 kms-1.
• Mass typically 107 solar masses - vastly more than BLR.
 NLR morphology and kinematics
• Morphology tends to be axisymmetric rather than
spherically symmetric.
• Ionization cones seen in (e.g.) [OIII]. Wedge-shaped
structures with opening angles 30 - 100 deg.

(extended) NLR of NGC 4151,

Seyfert 1.5 observed with HST.
 LINERS
• LINER: Low Ionization Nuclear Emission line Region.
• Optical: low ionization lines: strong O I, already weak [O III]
 low temperature gas, sometimes broadened lines.
• X-rays: strong continuum with same lines in emission, but
broadened, as Seyfert galaxies plus Fe XXV and Fe XXVI.
• X-ray emission lines come from an extended region:
emission from SNR’s and X-ray binaries.
• Have a rather low luminosity compared to other AGN. Are
believed to be between Seyferts and inactive galaxies.

M 81, Page 2003

 Quasars: the nucleus outshines the host galaxy

Quasi-stellar (radio)
sources: bright nucleus;
strong emission lines.
 The radio-loud versus radio-quiet
• Dichotomy originally found was a selection effect of the
surveys. A continuous radio luminosity function is
observed in volume limited surveys.
• Radio-quiet ≠ radio-silent: Radio-quiet objects
sometimes have pc-scale jets, and have similarly bright
nuclei in radio.
• Radio-quiet galaxies seem to miss the bright lobes
observed in radio-loud galaxies.
• Radio-loudness is probably a short (less than a few 108
years) phase in the life of a (radio-quiet) galaxy.
 Faranoff and Riley I (FR I) galaxy

Tail

Jets Tail

• 3C 31: VLA 1.4GHz image; bends in jet and tail are common.
• Both jets are visible and are brighter, but less collimated than in FR II galaxies.
• Tails are generally less bright than the lobes in FR II galaxies.
 Faranoff and Riley II (FR II) galaxy

• The jet (weaker than in FR I’s) is mostly one-sided (beaming) and straight.
• The lobes are back-flowing gas and are brighter than the jet.
• There are hotspots.
 Ingredients for FR I and II
• Central component: core or nucleus. The parsec-scale jet
base? (RQQ without jets have similar core luminosities).
• Jet: often the luminosity varies with distance from the core,
appears in bright knots.
• Hotspot or termination point (FR II), major disruption of the
jet, multiple hotspots in are often observed.
• Lobe (FR II): back-flowing plasma from the hotspot,
generally at higher frequencies is not observed all the way
back to the core.
• Tail (FR I): emission from the non-collimated jet.
Faranoff and Riley II (FR II) galaxy
 FRII hotspot characteristics
• Jet terminates in a strong shock (the hot-spot).
Compression, field amplification and in some cases
Fermi acceleration give enhanced emission.
• Flow around the hot-spot is complex and 3-
dimensional. Post-shock flow speeds may still be
relativistic.
• Particles escape from the hot-spot and in general
flow back towards the nucleus, forming the lobe. The
external medium is pushed further out, creating what
is sometimes called a cavity, i.e. the lobe.
• Advance speed of hotspot < 0.1c (I.e. << jet speed )
but supersonic -> bow shock in IGM.
 Evolution of FRII sources
• Youngest FRII sources observed so far (compact
symmetric objects or CSO’s) are 10 - 30 pc long and
have measured advance speeds of 0.2c, so are
inferred to be a few hundred years old.
• Models suggest that the advance speed falls and the
radio luminosity decreases with time.
• Typical ages inferred for FRII sources are 107 - 108
years from advance speed of the hotspots and their
distance from the core.
• General, the jet is an intermittent phase in the live of
an AGN (double-double radio galaxies).
The effects of motion and buoyancy in a
galaxy cluster
Looking in the jets: BL Lac objects and
Optical Violently Variable quasars

• Mrk 421: BL
Lac
• Spectral
energy
distribution
(SED) plot.
• No or weak
lines, as we
don’t see the
nucleus, just
the jet.
• Blazars:
both classes.
 Further unification models of AGN
Obscuration (torus) and beaming (for jets coming towards us) both
operate.
• Existence of broad/narrow lines: obscuration (see Seyferts).
• BL Lac’s are thought to be FR I’s seen through the jet (similar
luminosity properties after taking beaming effects into account).
• OVV quasars and flat spectrum radio quasars are thought to be
FR II’s seen through the jet (similar as above).
• Steep spectrum radio quasars are FR II’s seen at ~38º from LOS.
• FR II’s seem to have higher beaming factors (one sided-jets) than
FRI’s, but have similar viewing angles.
• The relation between FR I and FR II is poorly understood.
 Exceptions and contradictions
None of the classifications and unifications are completely
water-tight:
In some AGN, Hβ (used to classify type I versus type II) is
narrow but O II is not: problem in narrow-line versus
broad-line classification. Due to mass of the BH?
Some Seyfert 1’s seem to become Seyfert 2-like in X-rays
for days to months. Slight difference in opening angle
obscuration? Or does the accretion stop for that period?
FR I’s are less luminous in radio, but the only extra galactic
sources detected in ultra high (TeV) γ-ray emission.
 Black hole mass determination
• Individual stellar velocities Milky Way (3 x 106 solar
masses within 0.01 pc).
• Water masers in NGC 4258: 3.6 x 107 solar masses
within 0.1 pc (VLBA).
• Resolved gas kinematics e.g. M87: 3.2 x 109 solar
masses within 18 pc (HST).
• Stellar velocity dispersion
• Reverberation mapping
Black hole - bulge luminosity correlation:
MBH / Mbulge ∼ 10-3
Orbital motion around the Galactic centre
Water masers in NGC 4258

Argon et al. 2007

 Water maser: results for NGC 4258
• Water masers are point tracers of mass. They emit
at 1.35 cm and can be observed with VLBI (angular
resolution 200µas; spectral resolution 0.2 kms-1).
• Masers in nearly edge-on disk show Keplerian
rotation in a warped disk, so ∆v = (GM/r)1/2.
• M = (3.9±0.1) x 107 solar masses, for D=7.2Mpc, and
inclination of 82º.
• Small distance of the masers to the centre  central
mass can only be a black hole.
• Several other nearby AGN with measured masers,
not all masers seem to lie only in the disk.
Gas kinematics in M87
• Same principle
as masers, but
poorer spatial
resolution.
• Spatially-
resolved HST
spectroscopy of
gas disk, emitting
the Hα line.
• Assume
Keplerian rotation;
ignore warping,
non-circular
rotation.
• Central mass ≈
3.2 x 109 solar
masses.
 Stellar kinematics and reverberation
mapping
• Stellar kinematics: Need to assume a model for the
stellar orbits and build a stellar orbit library, gives
systematic uncertainty. Use observed velocity as
well as velocity dispersion from absorption lines,
possible for less well resolved galaxies.
• Reverberation mapping: Using light-travel time lag
between continuum and line flux and the line width,
again assuming Keplerian orbits. Light-travel time
lag is geometry (unknown) dependent, leading to a
~30% uncertainty. But, not dependent on spatial
resolution, so available to much larger z.
Jets
 Physical processes in jets
• Radiation mechanisms
• Radiative transfer
• Relativistic flow
• Particle acceleration
Jets are energetically dominated by non-thermal
plasma containing relativistic electrons, magnetic
field (and perhaps protons). The particle energy
distributions are approximate power laws.
 Synchrotron radiation summary
• Relativistic e-/e+ (Lorentz factor γ ≫ 1) spiralling in a
magnetic field at the relativistic gyro frequency νg/γ = eB/2π
γmec. I.e. relativistic version of cyclotron radiation.
• Unlike the cyclotron radiation, the synchrotron process
produces a continuous spectrum without lines.
• Energy loss rate for a single particle = 2σTcγ2sin2θ, where θ
is the pitch angle and σT is the Thomson cross-section.
• Critical frequency νc = (3/2)γ3νgsinθ. Spectrum falls off at
about this frequency.
• Maximum emission from a single e- is at 0.29νc, with νc=
1.22 x1010 γ2 B (frequency in Hz; B in T).
• The broad-band spectrum is determined by the energy
spectrum of the radiating particles.
 Properties of synchrotron radiation
• Energy distribution e- : N(γ)dγ = n0 γ-p dγ over a wide energy
range (from observation and shock theory). Spectral index
α, defined by S(ν) = S0ν−α, is given by p = 2α + 1.
Typically, 0.5 < α < 3 for optically-thin emission.
• Polarization: up to (3α+3)/(3α+5) ≅ 0.7 (normally much
less is observed) for a uniform field and isotropic pitch
angles, E-vector perpendicular to projected magnetic
field.
• Synchrotron cooling: higher energy e- lose energy
faster that lower energy e-. This leads to downward
curvature of the spectrum at high frequencies - details
depend on pitch-angle scattering and particle history.
 Synchrotron emission

Emission cones at 2 points of

an accelerated particle’s
trajectory (Rybicki & Lightman)

e- path in uniform B field, and

polarization E vector.
Theoretical spectrum for optically thick/thin
synchrotron radiation

Optically thin

Optically thick

Assuming a power-law electron distribution.

Minimum energy density from synchrotron
radiation
• Synchrotron radiation requires particles and fields,
both of which have energy: how much?

Energy spectrum

Total emitted power per

electron

Total emitted power per

unit frequency

Approximate emission
frequency
Energy in particles
Emission per unit
volume and frequency
interval

Integrate over energy

distribution (ignore
upper limit for k > 2)

Combine, adding
fudge factor K for
non-radiating
particles
 .. And field

Observed spectral
index α = (k-1)/2;
Lower frequency limit

Add the two and differentiate w.r.t. B -> minimum where

Minimum total energy per unit

volume
 Jets
• Where to find jets Young stars; binary stars;
pulsars; GRB and supernovae Ib/c,II; AGN.
• Parsec-scale jets Initial collimation and
propagation; variability; shocks and superluminal
motion: radio VLBI/VLBA observations. Only AGN.
• High-energy emission: X-rays to TeV emission.
• Large-scale jets Interaction with the IGM, only
AGN.
• Jet formation why have some AGN jets and others
not?
What are jets and why are they important?
• Fast, (highly-)collimated outflows from accreting
(compact) objects.
• Occur in some accreting: young stars, neutron stars
and black hole binaries (‘micro-quasars’), AGN and
long duration gamma-ray bursts, Supernova Ib/c, II.
• Outflow speeds can be highly relativistic (>0.99c),
but for young stars is only few 100 km/s.
• Radiation from radio - TeV gamma-rays for BL Lac’s.
• Enormous energy output: luminosity and kinetic.
• Major influence on galaxies and clusters through
energy and entropy input of AGN jets.
 Jets in stars and pulsars

Chandra image of the Crab pulsar.

HH 212, H2 line emission (VLT). NASA/CXC/SAO
Note that the star is invisible due to
the thick disk. Codella et al. 2007
 Jet resulting from the 1987A supernova
Type II supernova in the
LMC, progenitor was a blue
supergiant.
Ring of material is from a
previous pre-supernova
outburst.
The 2 bright spots is the
indication for a jet in this
source. Jet speed is quite
substantial.
SINS website, picture from 1998.
pc-scale jet in NGC 1068 (Seyfert 2)

NGC 1068 is
a radio quiet
quasar. The
jet is less than
70 pc long,
and probably
a young jet.
Jets in RQQ
are not very
common.
 Sub-pc to kpc scale jet in M 87

Difference scales of jet

emission in the M 87
(FR I) or Virgo A.
Note that collimation of
the jet must happen
within 0.8 pc of the core.
Note the ‘knotty’
character of the jet on
smaller scales.

Image courtesy of NRAO/AUI

 Collimation and initial propagation
• Jets are initially relativistic in all radio-loud (and
quite possibly radio-quiet) AGN, and are
perpendicular to the accretion disk.
• They originate very close to the central black hole:
best limits 50 - 100 RSCHWARZSCHILD in nearby radio
galaxies M87 and Cen A (VLBI observations).
• Parsec-scale jets are mostly one-sided: mainly the
effects of Doppler boosting, but free-free absorption
also detected in a few cases.
• The radio nucleus is generally assumed to be the
optically-thick photosphere at the base of the jet, and
appears to be stationary (superluminal expansion is
measured from the nucleus).
 Radio spectral properties
• Observation: power-law spectrum with index >0.5 in
frequency (>2 in energy).
• Acceleration is required on all scales because of the
very short synchrotron and inverse Compton loss
time-scales.
• Shocks increase emissivity by adiabatic
compression of particles and fields, and accelerate
particles to ultrarelativistic speeds from a mildly
relativistic seed population. Generally applicable for
acceleration.
• MHD winds will collimate and accelerate a jet if B-
field footpoints are fixed in the accretion disk. Less
well studied (Blanford-Znajek mechanism).
 Fermi acceleration at strong shocks

1st order Fermi acceleration: energy gain is of order vp/c. vp ≫

vshock, particle gyroradius is larger than shock thickness:
collisionless shock. Because of turbulence behind the
shock and irregularities ahead of it, particles scatter and
there is isotropic velocity distribution.
 1st order Fermi acceleration at shocks
•
Strong shock in region already occupied by fast
particles.
•
Particles are overtaken by the shock (energy gain ∝
∆v/c).
•
Then scattered by irregularities behind and ahead of
the shock, so some of them cross the shock again:
energy gain is repeated.
•
Non-relativistic strong shock
• N(E)dE ∝ E-2dE (α = 0.5)
•
Relativistic shock: α < 0.5
•
Observed: α ~ 0.7
Geometry for superluminal motion
 Superluminal motion
• Maximum apparent speed for given real velocity βc
occurs when β = cos θ (differentiate with respect to
θ) for an approaching component.
• Thus maximum βapp = βγ , with γ = (1- β2)-1/2.
• Therefore, high superluminal speeds require fast jets
at a small angle to the line of sight.
• Observed range of superluminal speeds in
extragalactic sources up to >20c (hence γ > 20)
• In superluminal extragalactic sources we see
components moving away from a stationary nucleus
on one side only: the approaching side.
Superluminal motion in a microquasar
Superluminal motion in a powerful quasar
• Motion is not always in
straight lines.
• Components have different
speeds; some appear
to be stationary.
• Components are not
necessarily blobs of plasma,
might be the shock front.
• This is a pattern speed.
• Apparent speeds up to
15c (hence minimum
Lorentz factor) in this OVV
quasar.
 Doppler beaming and anisotropy
• Jet emission is assumed to be intrinsically
symmetrical and bipolar, separated by 180º.
• The approaching jet appears brighter because of
Doppler beaming.
• A jet pointed towards us appears much brighter than
it does in the rest frame of the emitting plasma.
• Consequently, a bright, compact source selected
from a flux-limited sample is more likely to be
directed at our line of sight, and show superluminal
motion: the hypothesis of isotropy is incorrect.
• But, some YSO jets are also 1-sided, and this is
cannot be due to beaming (v ~ few 100 km/s).
Sample statistics: correlation of core
prominence and jet sidedness ratio
 What are jets made of?
We see only the radiating electrons, but the plasma
must be neutral. Hence 3 possibilities; not exclusive:
Relativistic e+e-: Problems with annihilation,
Compton drag and gamma-ray opacity on very
small scales, but favoured by circular
polarization arguments.
Relativistic e-, thermal p+: Avoids Compton
drag because protons carry momentum.
Relativistic p+e-: Energetically expensive. No
evidence in favour.
Also magnetic field, Poynting flux (energy flux in a
propagating EM wave), thermal plasma.
 X-ray emission on large scales

• X-ray emission is detected from jets, hot-spots and lobes in a

few cases.
• FRI jets: bright in X-ray, often knots, synchrotron(?).
• FRII jets: synchrotron or beamed inverse Compton scattering
of CMB photons. Much rarer than FR I X-ray jets.
• Hotspots: some SSC (equipartition); beamed synchrotron?
• Lobes: various estimates of B = (0.2 - 1) Beq; scattering of
CMB or accretion disk (IR) photons (note the different photon
energy requires different Lorentz factors: i.e. electron
energies).
 X-ray emission from jet and hotspot in Pictor A
(FR II)

Wilson et al.
2000

Note the thin jet, which is due to synchrotron

radiation, and the very bright core and hotspot. Note the
lack of thermal and lobe emission. FR II’s are normally not
in clusters.
 X-ray emission from Cygnus A (FR II)

0.2-10 keV image,

green circle is
indication of size of
optical detected galaxy.

Note the very bright core, the 3 larger hotspots and emission
from thermal gas, as well as weak emission from a possible
relic counterjet, probably inverse-Compton radiation of CMB.
FR II jet and ICM/IGM interaction schematic

Kino, Kawakatu 2005

The 3C 273 jet in optical, X-ray and radio

Marshall et al.
2001
Optical X-ray Radio
X-ray is brightest near the core, where radio is weakest, and weakest
far from the core where radio is brightest. Probably emission in all
bands is from synchrotron radiation, but IC is also possible.
 VHE emission from PKS 2155-304 (BL Lac)

Aharonian et al. 2007

Fast variability (~250 s) in the very high energy (VHE), i.e. >200
GeV, measured by HESS (High Energy Stereoscopic System),
during a flare. The average flux is >10 more than standard.
Emission mechanism and origin not understood: IC or synchrotron.
 Environmental impact: 3C 84 (FRI)

Fabian et al. 2000

Central elliptical galaxy in Perseus cluster. Does cluster gas thwart

the jet? X-ray (mostly hot cluster gas) false colour and radio contours.
 Cygnus A (FR II) cluster in X-ray

The black ellipse indicated X-ray and radio emission from

Cygnus A. Smooth hot cluster emission surrounds it.
 Jet power
Does the jet power come from the accretion disk or the
black hole?
 Outflow from disk surface powered by
gravitational energy release.
 Electromagnetic energy extraction from the black
hole if the event horizon is threaded by a
magnetic field.
How are jets collimated and formed?
Magnetic collimation - a natural mechanism, as toroidal
field is expected from a spinning system, and this
provides a confining force. However, not too well
understood.
Furthermore, in some FR I galaxies we see the jet being
re-collimated at kpc-scale from the nucleus. Probably
some re-collimation mechanism operates in FR II
galaxies along the whole jet, several 100’s kpc long.
Analytical and 2/3D MHD simulations of jets have had
some success, but:
Fundamental questions about the power source remain,
there are some problems with stability and the initial and
boundary conditions are ad hoc.
Accretion
 Overview
• Accretion onto black holes and energy extraction.
• Accretion disks
• Accretion in binary stars
 Schwarzschild black holes
•
Non-rotating black holes are described by the
Schwarzschild metric
rs = 2GM/c2 = 3 km (M/MSUN)
is the Schwarzschild radius.
• Event horizon For r < rs, there is no photon trajectory
which allows escape.
• Last stable orbit occurs at r = 3 rs.
•
Efficiency of energy release from accretion onto a
Schwarzschild black hole is related to the binding energy
of the last stable orbit. The maximum efficiency is 1 - 81/2
= 0.057.
 Kerr black holes
• Kerr metric describes all rotating black holes. They are
characterised by the mass M and angular momentum J
= aMc (0 ≤ a ≤ 1) only.
• Dragging of inertial frames If a ≠ 0 then there are no
stationary observers: every physically realisable
reference frame must rotate.
• Last stable orbit More complicated forms. Radii are
different for prograde and retrograde orbits (minimum
GM/c2 for a = 1).
• Efficiency of energy extraction is higher than for non-
rotating holes because the last stable orbit is closer in.
Maximum value = 1 - 31/2 = 0.42.
 Electromagnetic energy extraction
• Basic idea Large-scale magnetic fields anchored in
the disk extract rotational energy.
• Disk re-supplied by fresh infalling material.
• Blandford-Znajek mechanism Field lines are also
anchored on the black hole, allowing its rotational
energy to be tapped.
• Power / J ~ 1038 (a/m)2 (B/T)2 (M/108 Msun)2
• Process is poorly understood.
 Photon propagation near black holes
•
Special relativistic Doppler boosting
•
Gravitational redshift If dt is the proper time interval
seen by a distant observer and dt’ is that seen by an
observer close to the black hole, then
• dt’ = (1-rs/r)1/2 dt
• As r -> rs, events which take a finite amount of time as
measured near the black hole appear to take divergently
long times when observed at large distances (and
radiation is redshifted).
•
Curvature in photon trajectories
-> emission line skewed to higher energies.
Predicted Fe Kα relativistic line profile

Fe Kα 6.4 keV line is a

reflection line of neutral
material, supposedly in the
accretion disk.
A relativistic line profile was
observed with ASCA for the
Seyfert galaxy MCG-6-30-
15, but is not confirmed by
either Chandra or XMM-
Newton.
 Accretion disks
•
Angular momentum is difficult to lose for infalling
material. Orbit of minimum energy at constant
angular momentum is circular - hence disk.
•
Viscosity causes loss of angular momentum, so
disk material gradually sinks towards the central
object, dissipating energy which can potentially be
radiated away.
•
What is the viscosity?
• Turbulence
• Magnetic fields
Accretion disk and torus of NGC 4261 (LINER)

Jaffe & Ford

 Thin disks
• Standard model, well established for accreting
binary stars. Geometrically thin, optically thick disk
(alias Shakura-Sunyayev; α-disk).
∀ α- prescription: ν = α csH, where ν is the kinematic
viscosity, cs is the sound speed, H is the disk scale
height and α ≤ 1is assumed to be constant.
• Temperature: If the emission is black-body and
comes from close to the last stable orbit, then
• T ∼ 10 L
6
39
-1/4
(L/LEdd)1/2 K
• where L39 is the luminosity in units of 1039 W.
Hence characteristic temperatures in UV for AGN; X-
ray for binary stars.
 What is the viscosity mechanism?
Reynolds number, where V is the flow speed,
L is a typical length scale and ν = η/ρ is the
kinematic viscosity. Low R => viscous flow;
high R => turbulence.

From kinetic theory (λ = mean free path)

=> R ∼ 1012.

Therefore, kinetic viscosity is irrelevant, and flow is turbulent.

Turbulence and magnetic fields provide an effective
viscosity, but are difficult to calculate. Hence the α
prescription of Shakura & Sunyaev.
 Energy loss rate and spectrum

• Heat dissipation and disk luminosity (assuming Keplerian

disk/potential):
• •
3GM M  r  1 GM M
• Q= 1 − m 
 and Ltotal =
4πr 3  r  2 rm

• With rm the radius where the stress on the disk is zero, and for
a non-relativistic, steady-state disk.
• Energy loss rate is independent of viscosity (which is why we
have been able to make progress despite lack of knowledge
of the viscosity prescription).
• Spectrum: L is proportional to:
• ν2 for kT/h ≫ frequency (Rayleigh-Jeans).
• ν1/3 for frequencies corresponding to temperatures of
material in the disk.
• exp(-hν/kT) at frequencies above kTin/h.
 Radiatively inefficient accretion
 Observed accretion with L << LEdd

One explanation is that the accretion rate is low.

Another explanation is an accretion flow in which the radiation
rate is very low. This will happen if the disk is:
optically thin and geometrically thick, such that cooling time is
much longer than infall time. Therefore the gas falls into the
black hole before it has time to radiate. Ti ≫ Te.
 Radiatively inefficient accretion.

An example: Advection-dominated accretion flow (ADAF), but
other models are also possible (ADIOS, CDAF). Some have
potential problems with disk stability and boundary conditions.
 AGN formation and fuelling
• Formation is fast as quasars exist at z ≈ 6.
• Heavy-element abundances Quasar abundances are
close to solar. Fe present => time for SNI to have
happened in large numbers.
• Merging processes: provide fuel by disrupting gas in
the galaxy, and gas capture from the merging galaxy.
• Bar-driven inflow, spiral galaxies show bars often on
different scales, which allows gas to fall to the nucleus.
 X-ray accretion disk spectrum

• The X-ray continuum spectrum of the accretion disk has

at least 2 components:
1) a hard X-ray power-law component with photon index
between 1.5 and 2. This is also called the corona and is
assumed to be inverse-Compton emission from gas just
above the accretion disk. An alternative is that it is
magnetically energized gas.
2) a soft excess: an excess of emission in the soft X-
rays, well fit by a black body component and potentially
direct emission from the accretion disk, although then the
temperature of the accretion disk is higher than theory
predicts.
Accretion onto compact object in binaries

• Compact object can be a white dwarf (Cataclysmic

variables), a neutron star or a stellar mass black hole.
• Primary star (sometimes also called secondary) can be a
low mass star (low mass X-ray binary) or a high mass
star, O or B star (high mass X-ray binary).
• Different formation and accretion mechanism, and
evolution.
• HMXB have a harder X-ray spectrum than LMXBs, and
are more likely to show eclipses.
• Accretion onto neutron star can show type I bursts:
thermo-nuclear flashes, common in LMXBs; or X-ray
pulses from pulsars mostly in HMXBs.
 Evidence for black holes
• Analysis of binary star orbits from primary star
spectral lines (dependent on inclination, but the
mass function gives a lower limit).
• Mass of unseen companion > 3 solar masses
(sometimes by large factors).
• Hence cannot be neutron stars supported by neutron
degeneracy pressure.
• Lack of type I bursts or X-ray pulses is not
conclusive evidence.
Accretion mechanisms in binary systems
• Roche-lobe overflow occurs in a binary system
containing a compact object (white dwarf, neutron
star or black hole) and a primary star which is on the
giant branch.
• Primary expands (due to stellar evolution) so that its
surface reaches the inner Lagrange point (saddle
point in the gravitational potential between the stars).
• Material can then flow from the giant to the compact
companion. The Roche lobe is the equipotential
surface which meets the inner Lagrange point.
• Most likely accretion mechanism for LMXBs.
 Accretion mechanisms - stellar winds
• If the primary star is smaller than its Roche lobe, but
is losing mass rapidly via a stellar wind, then some
fraction of the wind can be captured by the compact
companion.
• Typical mass-loss rates are between 10-7 and 10-5
solar masses per year for stars between 15 and 60
solar masses.
• These systems are high-mass X-ray binaries, and
have X-ray luminosities of 1029 - 1031 W.
 Accretion in Cataclysmic variables

• The WD and companion are in a very close orbit.

• The secondary star has not expanded to fill its
Roche lobe, and is normally a red dwarf, instead of a
giant in the standard Roche lobe overflow picture.
• Due to the close orbit the WD distorts the secondary
(donor) star, this distortion will allow gas to flow
across the inner Lagrangian point towards the WD.
 Effects of magnetic fields
• Compact stars (neutron stars or white dwarfs; not black holes)
often have a strong surface magnetic field. This can have a
major effect on accretion.
• Wind accretion onto a compact star. Assume field is dipolar,
hence energy density
umag ~ (B2/2µ0)(R/r)6 (R is secondary radius).
• Numbers for a 1.4 solar mass neutron star accreting at the
Eddington rate:
L = 1.8 x 1031 W, accretion efficiency = 0.1, B = 108 T and
R = 10 km.
• Hence the immediate vicinity of the neutron star is
magnetically dominated and gas must flow close to the
poles of the dipole field in an accretion column.
• In extreme cases, no accretion disk forms.
 Magnetic neutron stars
For neutron star with strong magnetic field, disk disrupted in inner
parts. This is where most radiation is produced.

Material is
channeled
along field
lines and falls
onto star at
magnetic
poles

Compact object spinning => X-ray pulsar; spun up by disk.

 Observational tests of disk accretion
• Eclipse mapping Use eclipse by companion star to study
spatial and velocity structure of disk (primarily accretion onto
white dwarfs).
• Doppler tomography Observe velocity structure of spectral
line; use change of direction caused by orbital motion to
reconstruct emission distribution and velocity field.
• Integrated disk spectra
• Lyman edges For face-on disks, expect a discontinuity in the
spectrum at the wavelength of Lyman alpha because of the
abrupt change in opacity.
• Quasi-periodic oscillations
 Doppler Tomography of IP Pegasus

Steeghs 2003
IP Pegasus is a cataclysmic variable. In the accretion disk there are spiral
shocks due to the gravitational field of the donor star. The donor star is
encircled, and the line indicates the gas infall trajectory.
Quasi-periodic oscillations (QPO) observed
in a low-mass X-ray binary
First observed in CV’s with
frequencies of a few Hertz.
kHz QPO’s are present in
LMXB’s. QPO’s are only
observed in the X-ray flux.
Assumed that higher frequency
means the gas emitting is closer
to the compact object.
Therefore, kHz QPO’s should tell
Sco-X1, van de Klis 2000 us something about the inner
accretion disk. But the emission
process and why it is not periodic
are poorly understood.
 High-mass X-ray binaries
• Young population, short-lived OB primaries, mostly
in spiral arms.
• Some have X-ray pulsars as compact object.
• Spin periods 66 ms - 1000 s; orbital periods > 1 day.
• Spin-up and spin-down are both possible: as there is
mass loss from the system as well as mass transfer.
• Roche-lobe overflow, and wind accretion.
• Magnetic field confirmed from cyclotron absorption.
• First stellar mass BH detected is in Cygnus X-1, is in
a HMXB.
 Low-mass X-ray binaries
• Brightest X-ray sources in the Galaxy.
• Neutron star or black hole as compact object.
• Few contain pulsars (either low magnetic field or
magnetic and spin axes are aligned).
• All Roche-lobe overflow.
• Eclipses and dips => orbital period: minutes to
years.
• Bursts with typical duration 10 - 30 s (thermonuclear
runaway) => not a black hole.
• Example: Sco X-1, a neutron star binary, was the 1st
extra-solar X-ray source detected.
Achievements (what we think we know)
• Accretion onto a massive black hole is the power source
for AGN.
• Synchrotron radiation is the main non-thermal radiation
mechanism for jets and associated emission.
• Inverse Compton scattering by non-thermal electrons is
partly responsible for high-energy radiation from jets.
• Jet flow is relativistic in AGN.
• Obscuring tori exist.
• Photoionization is the main source of ionization for the
gas emitting emission, even at kpc distance from the
nucleus.
 Ignorance
• Why do AGN occur at all? What triggers an AGN? How long does it
last?
• How are they fuelled?
• Radiative versus non-radiative accretion.
• Jets: how are they formed? How are particles accelerated? What
are they made of? Why do they sometimes occur, sometimes not?
• What is the difference between FR I and FR II galaxies?
• Why are there obscuring tori? What is the torus made off, and
what is its geometry?
• How is hot plasma generated near accretion disks to produce AGN
hard X-ray emission (coronae)? How are the winds observed in
UV/X-ray accelerated?
• What is the origin of the cool gas that form the BLR and NLR?