Part 2

 Atoms and Molecules

 LivingThings and Water
 Molecules and Their Functions
 Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins and
Nucleic Acids
 Atoms to Molecules
An ELEMENT is a substances that cannot be broken down into smaller matter
by chemical means. There are 92 naturally occurring elements which have
been assigned an atomic symbol in the periodic table of elements. Elements
which have similar chemical reactions are arranged into the same columns.

Detailed
picture of
Periodic
Table of
Elements

Picture from
http://www.corrosionsourc
e.com/handbook/periodic/
 An ATOM is the smallest part of an element which keeps
chemical/physical characteristics of that element. An
atom contains smaller SUBATOMIC units called PROTONS,
NEUTRONS and ELECTRONS.
PROTONS and NEUTRONS
• Located in nucleus
• Has weight of approx. one
AMU
• A PROTON has a positive +
ELECTRONS
Picture of charge
Atom • Orbits around the nucleus
• Has no atomic mass
• Has a negative - charge

The ATOMIC NUMBER tells you how many how many

protons there are. From that information, you can
determine how many electrons an atom has when it is
Picture from
http://www.eskom.co.z
neutral. The atoms MASS represents the total of protons
a/nuclear_energy/fuel/
atom.jpg
and neutrons.
 EXAMPLE: CARBON has an
atomic number of 6 and an
atomic mass of 12. Therefore, it
has 6 electrons when it is ELECTRONS
neutral.
Each atom has a different
number of electrons in its
shells; however the first shell
always has a max of 2
electrons, with a max of 8
electrons in each continuing
shell.

Atomic Model:
shows different # of
protons, neutrons,
and electrons per
Pictures from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader Page 20
When an atom with the same atomic number has a
different atomic mass, it is known as an ISOTOPE.
As an atom with more neutrons decays, it emits
radiation in the form of particles or energy. This is
known as a RADIOISOTOPE.

RADIOISOTOPES are important

because they can be injected
into a persons system through
a substance typically used by
the body such as glucose, Picture of
brain PET
which allows researchers to scan
It is trace
knownit.as a TRACER because it can
then be viewed on computers through
Picture of
scans.
whole body Also, RADIOISOTOPES can be used to sterilize
PET scan with products and can be used to kill cancer cells in
tracer Fluorine-
18 the body.
Pictures from
 Molecules and Compounds
A chemical unit called a MOLECULE can be formed when atoms bond
together. Atoms can bond with like atoms or different atoms. When
differing atoms bond, it is called a COMPOUND.
There are Two Types of
Bonds
• Ionic Bonding: Ions attracted by opposite charges. An ION is a
particle which contains a positive + or negative – charge.
Atoms will give or take electron(s) to obtain stability.
• Covalent Bonding: Atoms share electron(s) in the outermost
shells. Double and triple bonding apply. Pictures
from
Human
Biology by
Sylvia S.
Covalent Bond: oxygen and two Covalent Bond: two oxygen Mader
Page 23
hydrogen

* If an atom has more than one shell, they are most stable with eight
electrons in their outer shell.
 Atoms and Molecules
 Living Things and Water
 Molecules and Their Functions
 Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins and
Nucleic Acids
 Properties of Water
• “Water is the most abundant molecule in living organisms…”
• Electrons circle larger (O) atom more than smaller (H) atom due to
stronger ability to attract
• Water is a POLAR molecule : electrical charge is dispensed uneven
whereas (O) has slight – charge and (H) has slight + charge.
• At room temperature, water is a liquid because of hydrogen bonding
• Waters temperature rises and falls gradually; it holds heat well.
• “Water has a high heat of vaporization…”
• Water becomes less dense at frozen temperatures Picture of
Hydrogen
• “Water molecules are cohesive, and, therefore, liquids fill vessels…”
Bonding
among H2O
• Water is a solvent which aids chemical reactions
• Neutral pH

HYDROGEN BOND: “Weak bond that arises

between slightly positive hydrogen atom of
one molecule and slightly negative atom of
another, or between parts of the same Picture from
Human Biology
molecule.”
Some verbiage taken from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader page 24-25 by Sylvia S.
 Properties of Water Continued
Any ion or molecule which interacts with water are called
HYDROPHILIC, whereas ones that do not interact are called
HYDROPHOBIC.
Acids and
Bases
In living things, BUFFERS help to regulate and restrict pH change of a
solution. Buffers help by taking up extra H+ or OH-.

Acid Solution: Acids break up in water, releasing (H+). Have high (H+)
Basic Solution: Bases either take up (H+) or release (OH-). Have low
(H+)
pH Scale
Used to show the acidity or
basicity in any given solution.
The lower the number, the
more acidic the solution is and
the more H+. The higher the
number, the more basic the
solution is and the less H+.

Picture from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader page 26

 Atoms and Molecules
 Living Things and Water

 Molecules and Their Functions

 Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins and
Nucleic Acids
 Molecules and their Functions
An ORGANIC MOLECULE is one which contains carbon and
hydrogen
Four Categories of Organic Molecules

1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic Acids

MACROMOLECULE: contains many subunits

DEHYDRATION REACTION: Molecule forms
by removal of –OH and –H
HYDROLYSIS REACTION: Breakdown
subunits by adding H2O

Picture shows Dehydration &

Hydrolysis reactions
Picture from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader Page 27
 Atoms and Molecules
 Living Things and Water
 Molecules and Their Functions

 Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins

and Nucleic Acids
 Carbohydrates: Used for immediate and stored
energy
Simple Complex
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates
MONOSACCHARIDE: Carbon POLYSACCHARIDE: Consists of
atoms low (3 to 7) many monosaccharides joined
by glycosidic bonds
DISACCHARIDE: Joining of two
monosaccharides by CELLULOSE: Polysaccharide in
dehydration reaction plant cell walls
PENTOSE: 5-carbon sugar GLYCOGEN: Stored form of
glucose
HEXOSE: 6-carbon sugar
STARCH: Stored
GLUCOSE: Hexose used as
polysaccharides in
energy during cellular
plants/animals. Organized of
respiration Different glucose molecules with less
Forms of chains of glucose
Glucose

Pictures
from Human
Biology by
Sylvia S. Disaccharide containing 2
Mader Page
28 glucose molecules
 Lipids: Energy rich molecules which do not
dissolve in H2O

FATS: Animal origin; solid at SATURATED: No double bonds

room temperature
• Energy storage (long term)
• Insulates major organs by
adding a padded layer
between (C) atoms, inundated with
(H)
UNSATURATED: Double bonds in
(C) wherever (H) is less than two
per (C)

• Protects against heat loss TRANS-FATTY ACIDS: Created by

partial hydrogenation of oils
• TRIGLYCERIDE: Three part
structure: three fatty acid and
one glycerol molecules

OILS: Plant origin; liquid at Picture from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader
room temperature Page 31

Fats can mix with water by emulsification. EMULSIFICATION is the process

of breaking the lipids down into smaller droplets with an emulsifier such
 Lipids Continued Pictures from
Human Biology
by Sylvia S.
Mader Pages 31-

PHOSPHOLIPIDS: “Molecule that

32

forms the bilayer of the cell’s

membrane…”
• Head – polar, hydrophilic
• Tail - nonpolar, hydrophobic

STEROIDS: Complex of four

(C) rings obtained from
cholesterol. Examples are sex
hormones testosterone and
estrogen.

Phospholipid
Structure
 Proteins
PROTEIN: A molecule comprised of polypeptide(s).
Functions of Proteins: support, metabolic, transport, defense, regulation
and motion.
Some examples of protein or where it can be found: Hair and nails
(keratin), skin (collagen), red blood cells (hemoglobin), muscles,
antibodies, hormones, actin and myosin (contractile proteins).
Pictures from Human
Biology by Sylvia S.
Mader Page 33

Amino Acids are made up from an amino group, an acid group, and
an R group (rest of particular molecule). An amino acid will vary
depending on its R group; some are polar while others are not.

A PEPTIDE BOND
is formed when
two amino acids
join together by
dehydration
reaction.
Proteins Continued There are Four Levels of
Structure
When an amino and acids • PRIMARY STRUCTURE: Basic sequence of
bonding with an R group amino acids which are joined by peptide
has been disturbed due to bonds
pH or temperature
• SECONDARY STRUCTURE: Polypeptides
change, a process
adopt certain directions or positions in
effecting the proteins space (alpha helix [chain coils] / pleated
shape known as sheet [chain pleats])
denaturation occurs.
occurs
• TERTIARY4. STRUCTURE:
QUATERNARY Three-dimensional
STRUCTURE: The
globular shape of secondary
joining structure
of two or more
polypeptides

Pictures
from
Human
Biology
by Sylvia
S. Mader
Page 34
Nucleic Acids: Macromolecules made up of nucleotides
NUCLEOTIDE: Molecular structure consisting of three subunit molecules – a
phosphate, a sugar (sugar deoxyribose or ribose) and a nitrogenous base.
DNA/RNA are polymers
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid RNA: Ribonucleic Acid
• Contains five carbon sugar • Contains five carbon sugar ribose
deoxyribose • Base (U) replaced base (T)
• Bases – Adenine (A), Thymine (T), • Does not form helix/single
Guanine (G), and Cytosine (C) stranded
• Base can have two rings (A and G) or • DNA is rewritten in RNA form
one ring (T and C) which allows it to be transferred to
• Possesses genetic information in cells other parts of the cell with amino
• Copy and distribute genetic acid sequence information
information during cellular/organism • Protein synthesis
reproduction
• Double stranded/helix/
Base pairing
Backbone /
Upright
Pictures From Human Biology by
Sylvia S. Mader Page 35 Sides
 ATP (adenosine diphosphate): High energy
carrier

• Composed of adenosine (adenine + ribose) and triphosphate

• Bonds are unstable
• Undergoes hydrolysis for energy: result is ADP (adenosine
diphosphate)
• After breakdown, the addition of phosphate molecule is used to
rebuild ADT

Picture shows how ATP is hydrolyzed for energy use

Pictures from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader page 36

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