Energy Consumption

& Power Requirements of A Vehicle

P M V Subbarao
Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
Know the Requirements Before You develop an
Engine..
TRACTIVE FORCE REQUIREMENTS
Vehicles require thrust forces, generated at the tires, to
initiate and maintain motion.
These forces are usually referred to as tractive forces or the
tractive force requirement.
If the required tractive force (F) is broken into various
components.
Major Force Components Demanding Trctive Force
Resistance
Tractive effort
Vehicle acceleration
Braking
Stopping distance
Resistance Force : R
a

The major components of the resisting forces to motion are
comprised of :
Aerodynamic loads (F
aero
)
Acceleration forces (F
accel
= ma & Io forces)
Gradeability requirements (F
grade
)
Chassis losses (F
roll resist
).
g rr aero
F F F ma F + + + =
Aerodynamic Force : Flow Past A Bluff Body
Composed of:
1. Turbulent air flow around vehicle body (85%)
2. Friction of air over vehicle body (12%)
3. Vehicle component resistance, from radiators and air
vents (3%)

Aerodynamic Resistance on Vehicle
2
2
1
V P
d
=
) (
2
1
2
RE f A V F
d
=
A C V F
d d
2
2
1
=
2
0 ,
) ( ) 2 . 1 (
2
1
V V A C F
d design d
+ =
V F = P
design d ,
Dynamic Pressure:

Drag Force:



Aero Power
C
d
= coefficient of drag = air density ~ 1.2 kg/m
3

A = projected frontal area (m
2
) f(Re) = Reynolds number

v = vehicle velocity (m/sec) V
0
= head wind velocity

) ( 86 2
0
2
V V V A
C
)
10
. (1 =
P
d
-6
aero
+

P = power (kw) A = area (m
2
)
V = velocity (KpH) V
0
= headwind velocity
C
d
= drag coefficient = 1.2 kg/m
3

Purpose, Shape & Drag
Shape & Components of Drag
Some examples of C
d
:
The typical modern automobile achieves a drag coefficient of between 0.30 and
0.35.
SUVs, with their flatter shapes, typically achieve a C
d
of 0.350.45.
Notably, certain cars can achieve figures of 0.25-0.30, although sometimes
designers deliberately increase drag in order to reduce lift.
0.7 to 1.1 - typical values for a Formula 1 car (downforce settings change for
each circuit)
0.7 - Caterham Seven
at least 0.6 - a typical truck
0.57 - Hummer H2, 2003
0.51 - Citron 2CV
over 0.5 - Dodge Viper
0.44 - Toyota Truck, 1990-1995
0.42 - Lamborghini Countach, 1974
0.42 - Triumph Spitfire Mk IV, 1971-1980
0.42 - Plymouth Duster, 1994
0.39 - Dodge Durango, 2004
0.39 - Triumph Spitfire, 1964-1970
0.38 - Volkswagen Beetle
0.38 - Mazda Miata, 1989
0.374 - Ford Capri Mk III, 1978-1986
0.372 - Ferrari F50, 1996
0.36 - Eagle Talon, mid-1990s
0.36 - Citron DS, 1955
0.36 - Ferrari Testarossa, 1986
0.36 - Opel GT, 1969
0.36 - Honda Civic, 2001
0.36 - Citron CX, 1974 (the car was named after the term for drag
coefficient)
0.355 - NSU Ro 80, 1967

0.34 - Ford Sierra, 1982
0.34 - Ferrari F40, 1987
0.34 - Chevrolet Caprice, 1994-1996
0.34 - Chevrolet Corvette Z06, 2006
0.338 - Chevrolet Camaro, 1995
0.33 - Dodge Charger, 2006
0.33 - Audi A3, 2006
0.33 - Subaru Impreza WRX STi, 2004
0.33 - Mazda RX-7 FC3C, 1987-91
0.33 - Citroen SM, 1970
0.32064 - Volkswagen GTI Mk V, 2006 (0.3216 with ground effects)
0.32 - Toyota Celica,1995-2005
0.31 - Citron AX, 1986
0.31 - Citron GS, 1970
0.31 - Eagle Vision
0.31 - Ford Falcon, 1995-1998
0.31 - Mazda RX-7 FC3S, 1986-91
0.31 - Renault 25, 1984
0.31 - Saab Sonett III, 1970
0.30 - Audi 100, 1983
0.30 - BMW E90, 2006
0.30 - Porsche 996, 1997
0.30 - Saab 92, 1947
0.195 - General Motors EV1, 1996
0.19 - Alfa Romeo BAT Concept, 1953
0.19 - Dodge Intrepid ESX Concept , 1995
0.19 - Mercedes-Benz "Bionic Car" Concept, 2005 ([2]
mercedes_bionic.htm) (based on the boxfish)
0.16 - Daihatsu UFEIII Concept, 2005
0.16 - General Motors Precept Concept, 2000
0.14 - Fiat Turbina Concept, 1954
0.137 - Ford Probe V prototype, 1985

Rolling Resistance
Composed primarily of
1. Resistance from tire deformation (~90%)
2. Tire penetration and surface compression (~ 4%)
3. Tire slippage and air circulation around wheel (~ 6%)
4. Wide range of factors affect total rolling resistance
5. Simplifying approximation:

W C F
rr rr
=
ROLLING RESISTANCE

V M
C
)
10
(2.72 =
P
V M
C
3600
9.81
=
P
rr
3 -
rr
rr rr


|
.
|

\
|

where:
P = power (kW)
C
rr
= coefficient of rolling resistance
M = mass (kg)
V = velocity (KpH)
Rolling resistance of a body is proportional to the weight of
the body normal to surface of travel.
Mg F
rr

|
.
|

\
|
+ =
147
1 01 . 0
V
C
rl
Contact Type
C
rr
Steel wheel on rail 0.0002...0.0010
Car tire on road 0.010...0.035
Car tire energy safe 0.006...0.009
Tube 22mm, 8 bar 0.002
Race tyre 23 mm, 7 bar 0.003
Touring 32 mm, 5 bar 0.005
Tyre with leak protection 37
mm, 5 bar / 3 bar
0.007 / 0.01
Grade Resistance
Composed of
Gravitational force acting on the vehicle

g g
W F u sin =
g g
u u tan sin ~
g g
W F u tan =
G
g
= u tan
WG F
g
=
For small angles,

g

W

g

F
g

F = F
aero
+ F
roll resist
+ F
grade
+ F
accel
( ) ma mg slope mg C AV C F
rr d
+ + +
|
.
|

\
|
= %
2
2

( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +
|
.
|

\
|
=
g
a
slope C mg AV C F
rr d
%
2
2

Steady state force are equal to the summation of F

aero
+ F
roll resist
+
F
grade
Fgrade resist Froll Faero + + =
ss
F
Transient forces are primarily comprised of acceleration related forces
where a change in velocity is required.
These include:
The rotational inertia requirements (F
Io
) and
the translational mass (F
ma
).
If rotational mass is added it adds not only rotational inertia but also
translational inertia.
r
a
=
k
m = I =
dt
d
I =
T
tire
vehicle
wheel wheel
2
wheel i
o o o
e
a
r

k
m
=
r
a

k
m =
r
T
=
F
2
tire
2 2
2
2
tire
2
tire
i
i
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
o
o
o= angular acceleration k = radius of gyration t = time T = Torque
m = mass o = ratio between rotating component and the tire
Therefore if the mass rotates on a vehicle which has translation,

a m + m
r

k
=
F
t r
2
tire
2 2
i
t & r
|
|
.
|

\
|
o
| |
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

m
+
r

k
m
a + Slope % +
C
g
m
+
V
A
C
=
F
t
2
tire
2 2
r rr t
2
d
tire
o

2
G
r

F
=
T
tire tire
PP
) (
r
G
RPM
= h km
tire
PE
377 . 0 / - -
The Powering Engine Torque is:

The speed of the vehicle in km/h is:

r
tire
= Tire Rolling Radius (meters)

G = Numerical Ratio between P.E. and Tire

Ideal capacity of Powering Engine:
kW
N
T P
PE PE
|
.
|

\
|
=
60000
2t
VEHICLE ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
The energy consumption of a vehicle is based on:
the tractive forces required,
the mechanical efficiency of the drive train system,
the efficiency of the energy conversion device and the efficiency of the
storage system.
A flywheel used for energy storage will eventually lose its total energy
stored due to bearing and aerodynamic losses.
A storage battery may eventually discharge due to intrinsic losses in the
storage device.
These losses can be a function of the % of the total system capacity at
which the system is currently operating.
A liquid fuel usually has extremely high storage efficiency while a
flywheel may have considerably less storage efficiency.
Both however have the storage efficiency a function of time.
100 x
E
E E
Efficiency Storge
initial
fianl initial
store
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = q
Conversion efficiency:
An internal combustion engine changes chemical energy to mechanical
energy.
The system also produces unwanted heat and due to moving parts has
internal friction which further reduces the system efficiency.
A storage battery has an efficiency loss during the discharge cycle and an
efficiency loss during the charge cycle.
These efficiencies may be a function of the rate at which the power is
extracted.
100

= =
fuel
delivered fuel
conv
E
P E
Efficiency Conversion q
mechanical thermal conv
q q q =
Drive system Efficiency:
Conversion of chemical or electrical to mechanical energy does not
complete the power flow to the wheels.
Drive train inefficiencies further reduce the power available to produce the
tractive forces.
These losses are typically a function of the system design and the torque
being delivered through the system.

100 x
P
P P
Efficiency Mechanical
source power
tractive source power
drive mech

= =q
n
red red red drive mech
q q q q ......
2 1
=