Pan African Enetwork Project: Course Name

PAN African eNetwork Project
Course Name
BASIC MATHEMATICS Semester - I
Jitendra Kumar
Copyright Amity University 1
Module V: Data Analysis

Syllabus: Data and Statistical Data re!uency Distribution "raphical #epresentation Measure o$ the central %endency Measure o$ Dispersion
Copyright Amity University
Data and Statistical Data

Data: Concept & De$inition Data Sources
Descriptive Statistics: %abular and "raphical 'resentations

Summari(ing )ualitative Data Summari(ing )uantitative Data
Summari(ing )ualitative Data

re!uency Distribution #elative re!uency Distribution 'ercent re!uency Distribution *ar "raphs 'ie Charts
requency !istribution
A A frequency frequency distribution distribution is is a a tabular tabular summary summary of of data data showing showing the the frequency frequency (or (or number) number) of of items items in in each each of of several several non-overlapping non-overlapping classes. classes. The The objective objective is is to to provide provide insights insights about about the the data data that that cannot cannot be be quickly quickly obtained obtained by by looking looking only only at at the the original original data. data.
+,ample: Marada -nn

"uests staying at Marada -nn .ere as/ed to rate the !uality o$ their accommodations as being excellent0 above average0 average0 below average0 or poor1 %he ratings provided by a sample o$ 23 guests are:
"elow Average Above Average Above Average Average Above Average Average Above Average
Average Above Average "elow Average #oor $%cellent Above Average Average
Above Average Above Average "elow Average #oor Above Average Average
requency !istribution
,ating #oor "elow Average Average Above Average $%cellent Total
requency & ' ( ) * &+
,elative requency !istribution

The The relative relative frequency frequency of of a a class class is is the the fraction fraction or or proportion proportion of of the the total total number number of of data data items items belonging belonging to to the the class. class. A A relative relative frequency frequency distribution distribution is is a a tabular tabular summary summary of of a a set set of of data data showing showing the the relative relative frequency frequency for for each each class. class.
'ercent re!uency Distribution

The The percent percent frequency frequency of of a a class class is is the the relative relative frequency frequency multiplied multiplied by by *++. *++. A A percent percent frequency frequency distribution distribution is is a a tabular tabular summary summary of of a a set set of of data data showing showing the the percent percent frequency frequency for for each each class. class.
,elative requency and #ercent requency !istributions
,elative requency ,ating .*+ #oor .*( "elow Average .&( Average .-( Above Average .+( $%cellent Total *.++
#ercent requency *+ *( &( .*+(*++) . *+ -( ( *++ */&+ . .+(
*ar "raph
A bar graph is a graphical device for depicting qualitative data. 0n one a%is (usually the hori1ontal a%is)2 we specify the labels that are used for each of the classes. A frequency2 relative frequency2 or percent frequency scale can be used for the other a%is (usually the vertical a%is). 3sing a bar of fi%ed width drawn above each class label2 we e%tend the height appropriately. The bars are separated to emphasi1e the fact that each class is a separate category.
"ar 4raph
*+ ) 7 re!uenc" 6 5 ( ' & * #oor "elow Average Above $%cellent Average Average #atin$
8arada 9nn :uality ,atings
'ie Chart
The pie chart is a commonly used graphical device for presenting relative frequency distributions for qualitative data.
irst draw a circle; then use the relative frequencies to subdivide the circle into sectors that correspond to the relative frequency for each class. <ince there are '5+ degrees in a circle2 a class with a relative frequency of .&( would consume .&(('5+) . )+ degrees of the circle.
#ie >hart
8arada 9nn :uality ,atings
$%cellent (= #oor *+= Above Average -(= "elow Average *(= Average &(=
$%ample? 8arada 9nn
9nsights 4ained from the #receding #ie >hart
0ne-half of the customers surveyed gave 8arada a quality rating of Aabove averageB or Ae%cellentB (looking at the left side of the pie). This might please the manager. or each customer who gave an Ae%cellentB rating2 there were two customers who gave a ApoorB rating (looking at the top of the pie). This should displease the manager.
Summari(ing )uantitative Data

re!uency Distribution #elative re!uency Distribution 'ercent re!uency Distribution 4istogram Cumulative Distributions 5give
Summari(ing )uantitative Data

re!uency Distribution #elative re!uency Distribution 'ercent re!uency Distribution 4istogram Cumulative Distributions 5give
+,ample: 4udson Auto #epair

The manager of Cudson Auto would like to have a better understanding of the cost of parts used in the engine tune-ups performed in the shop. <he e%amines (+ customer invoices for tune-ups. The costs of parts2 rounded to the nearest dollar2 are listed on the ne%t slide.
$%ample? Cudson Auto ,epair
<ample of #arts >ost(D) for (+ Tune-ups

67 5) 6)6 7& )' 6& 5& 77 )7 (6 7) 57 57 *+* 6( 55 )6 7' 6) (& 6( *+( 57 *+( )) 6) 66 6* 6) 7+ 6( 5( 5) 5) )6 6& 7+ 56 5& 5& 65 *+) 66'
)* 6* *+7( 5&
re!uency Distribution
"uidelines $or Selecting 6umber o$ Classes
@ @
3se between ( and &+ classes. !ata sets with a larger number of elements usually require a larger number of classes. <maller data sets usually require fewer classes. 3se enough classes to show the variation in the data. !o not use so many classes that some contain only a few data items.
@ @ @
"uidelines $or Selecting 7idth o$ Classes
@ 3se classes of equal width. @ Appro%imate >lass Hidth .
Eargest !ata Falue <mallest !ata Falue Gumber of >lasses
Appro%imate >lass Hidth . (*+) - (&)/5 . ).( *+ or 4udson Auto #epair0 i$ .e choose si, classes: requency #arts >ost (D) (+-() 5+-5) 6+-6) 7+-7) )+-)) *++-*+) & *' *5 6 6 ( (+
Total
#elative re!uency and 'ercent re!uency Distributions
#arts ,elative #ercent >ost (D) requency requency (+-() .+5+-5) .&5 &/(+ &5 .+-(*++) 6+-6) .'& '& 7+-7) .**)+-)) .***++-*+) .*+ *+ Total *.++ *++
,elative requency and #ercent requency !istributions
9nsights 4ained from the #ercent requency !istribution
@ @ @ @
0nly -= of the parts costs are in the D(+-() class. '+= of the parts costs are under D6+. The greatest percentage ('&= or almost one-third) of the parts costs are in the D6+-6) class. *+= of the parts costs are D*++ or more.
!ot #lot

0ne of the simplest graphical summaries of data is a dot plot. A hori1ontal a%is shows the range of data values. Then each data value is represented by a dot placed above the a%is.
!ot #lot
Tune-up #arts >ost
(+
5+
6+
7+
)+
*++
**+
>ost (D)
4istogram
Another common graphical presentation of quantitative data is a histogram. The variable of interest is placed on the hori1ontal a%is. A rectangle is drawn above each class interval with its height corresponding to the intervalIs frequency2 relative frequency2 or percent frequency. 3nlike a bar graph2 a histogram has no natural separation between rectangles of adjacent classes.
4istogram
Another common graphical presentation of quantitative data is a histogram. The variable of interest is placed on the hori1ontal a%is. A rectangle is drawn above each class interval with its height corresponding to the intervalIs frequency2 relative frequency2 or percent frequency. 3nlike a bar graph2 a histogram has no natural separation between rectangles of adjacent classes.
4istogram
Tune-up #arts >ost
*7 *5 *-
re!uenc"
*& *+ 7 5 &
Parts (+() 5+5) 6+6) 7+7) )+)) *++-**+ Cost %&'
4istogram
Moderately S/e.ed 8e$t
9 A longer tail to the le$t 9 +,ample: e,am scores
.'(
,elative requency
.'+ .&( .&+ .*( .*+ .+( +
4istogram
Moderately #ight S/e.ed
9 A longer tail to the right 9 +,ample: housing values
.'(
,elative requency
.'+ .&( .&+ .*( .*+ .+( +
4istogram
4ighly S/e.ed #ight
9 A very long tail to the right 9 +,ample: e,ecutive salaries
.'(
,elative requency
.'+ .&( .&+ .*( .*+ .+( +
>umulative !istributions
>umulative >umulative frequency frequency distribution distribution shows shows the the number number of of items items with with values values less less than than or or equal equal to to the the upper upper limit limit of of each each class.. class.. >umulative >umulative relative relative frequency frequency distribution distribution J J shows shows the the proportion proportion of of items items with with values values less less than than or or equal equal to to the the upper upper limit limit of of each each class. class. >umulative >umulative percent percent frequency frequency distribution distribution J J shows shows the the percentage percentage of of items items with with values values less less than than or or equal equal to to the the upper upper limit limit of of each each class. class.
Cumulative Distributions
4udson Auto #epair
>ost (D) K () K 5) K 6) K 7) K )) K *+) >umulative >umulative >umulative ,elative #ercent requency requency requency & .+*( .'+ '+ '* & L *' .5& *(/(+ 5& .'+(*++) '7 .65 65 -( .)+ )+ (+ *.++ *++
Cumulative Distributions
4udson Auto #epair
>ost (D) K () K 5) K 6) K 7) K )) K *+) >umulative >umulative >umulative ,elative #ercent requency requency requency & .+*( .'+ '+ '* & L *' .5& *(/(+ 5& .'+(*++) '7 .65 65 -( .)+ )+ (+ *.++ *++
0give

An ogive is a graph of a cumulative distribution. The data values are shown on the hori1ontal a%is. <hown on the vertical a%is are the? @ cumulative frequencies2 or @ cumulative relative frequencies2 or @ cumulative percent frequencies The frequency (one of the above) of each class is plotted as a point. The plotted points are connected by straight lines.
0give
Cudson Auto ,epair @ "ecause the class limits for the parts-cost data are (+()2 5+-5)2 and so on2 there appear to be one-unit gaps from () to 5+2 5) to 6+2 and so on.
@ @
These gaps are eliminated by plotting points halfway between the class limits. Thus2 ().( is used for the (+-() class2 5).( is used for the 5+-5) class2 and so on.
0give with >umulative #ercent requencies

Tune-up Tune-up #arts #arts >ost >ost
>umulative #ercent requency *++ 7+ 5+ -+ &+
(7).(2 65)
(+
5+
6+
7+
)+
*++
**+
#arts >ost (D)
>hapter &2 #art " !escriptive <tatistics? Tabular and 4raphical #resentations

$%ploratory !ata Analysis? <tem-and-Eeaf !isplay >rosstabulations and y <catter !iagrams
x
+,ploratory Data Analysis

The techniques of e%ploratory data analysis consist of simple arithmetic and easy-to-draw pictures that can be used to summari1e data quickly. 0ne such technique is the stem-and-leaf display.
A stem-and-leaf display shows both the rank order and shape of the distribution of the data. 9t is similar to a histogram on its side2 but it has the advantage of showing the actual data values. The first digits of each data item are arranged to the left of a vertical line. To the right of the vertical line we record the last digit for each item in rank order. $ach line in the display is referred to as a stem. $ach digit on a stem is a leaf.
Stem:and:8ea$ Display
$%ample? Cudson Auto ,epair

The manager of Cudson Auto would like to have a better understanding of the cost of parts used in the engine tune-ups performed in the shop. <he e%amines (+ customer invoices for tune-ups. The costs of parts2 rounded to the nearest dollar2 are listed on the ne%t slide.
<tem-and-Eeaf !isplay
( ) * + , -. a stem & & * + * * 6 & * + ' -
& & & 6 (
& & ' 6 (
( ' ( 6 )
5 7 7
6 7 7 7 ) ) ) - ( ( ( 5 6 7 ) ) ) ) )
a leaf
Stretched Stem:and:8ea$ Display

9f we believe the original stem-and-leaf display has condensed the data too much2 we can stretch the display by using two stems for each leading digit(s).
Hhenever a stem value is stated twice2 the first value corresponds to leaf values of + -2 and the second value corresponds to leaf values of ( ).
<tretched <tem-and-Eeaf !isplay

( ( ) ) * * + + , , -. -. & 6 & ( * ( + ( * 6 * (
& 5 * ( + 7 ' 6 (
& 6 & ( & )
& 7 & 5 '
7 ' 6
7 7
) ) ) ) ) )
6 7 ) )
+,ample: 8ea$ Unit ; 311

-$ .e have data .ith values such as 7.5 **.6 ).* *+.& 7.5 **.6 ).).).* *+.& **.+ **.+ 7.7 7.7 a stem-and-leaf display of these data will be Eeaf 3nit . +.* 7 5 7 ) * *+ & ** + 6
$%ample? Eeaf 3nit . *+

9f we have data with values such as *7+5 *7+5 *6*6 *6*6 *)6*)6- *6)* *6)* *57& *57& *)*+ *)*+ *7'7 *7'7 a stem-and-leaf display of these data will be Eeaf 3nit . *+ *5 7 *6 * ) *7 + ' *) * 6
The 7& in *57& is rounded down to 7+ and is represented as an 7.
Crosstabulations and Scatter Diagrams

Thus far we have focused on presentations that are used to summari1e the data for one variable at a time. 0ften a manager is interested in presentations that will help understand the relationship between two variables. >rosstabulation and a scatter diagram are two methods for summari1ing the data for two variables simultaneously.
>rosstabulation
A crosstabulation is a tabular summary of data for two variables.
>rosstabulation can be used when? @ one variable is qualitative and the other is quantitative2 @ both variables are qualitative2 or @ both variables are quantitative.
The left and top margin labels define the classes for the two variables.
>rosstabulation
$%ample? inger Eakes Comes The number of inger Eakes homes sold for each style and price for the past two years is shown below. quantitative variable #rice ,ange >olonial *7 *& '+ qualitative variable Come <tyle Eog <plit A- rame 5 *&+ *) *5 '( *& ' *( Total
(( -(
K D))2+++ M D))2+++ Total
*++
Crosstabulation
-nsights "ained $rom 'receding Crosstabulation
@ @
The greatest number of homes (*)) in the sample are a split-level style and priced at less than or equal to D))2+++. 0nly three homes in the sample are an A- rame style and priced at more than D))2+++.
>rosstabulation
requency distribution for the price variable #rice ,ange K D))2+++ M D))2+++ Total Come <tyle Eog <plit A- rame 5 *&+ *) *5 '( *& ' *(
>olonial *7 *& '+
Total
(( -(
*++
requency distribution for the home style variable

Crosstabulation: #o. or Column 'ercentages Converting the entries in the table into
ro. percentages or column percentages can provide additional insight about the relationship bet.een the t.o variables1
Cross tabulation: #o. or Column 'ercentages Converting the entries in the table into ro. percentages or column percentages can provide additional insight about the relationship bet.een the t.o variables1
>rosstabulation? ,ow #ercentages
#rice ,ange K D))2+++ M D))2+++
Come <tyle >olonial Eog <plit A- rame '&.6' &5.56 *+.)* '-.(( '*.** '(.(5 &*.7& 5.56
Total
*++ *++
Gote? row totals are actually *++.+* due to rounding.
(>olonial and M D))N)/(All MD))N) % *++ . (*&/-() % *++
>rosstabulation? >olumn #ercentages
#rice ,ange K D))2+++ M D))2+++ Total
Come <tyle >olonial Eog <plit A- rame 5+.++ -+.++ *++ '+.++ (-.&) 6+.++ -(.6* *++ *++ 7+.++ &+.++ *++
(>olonial and M D))N)/(All >olonial) % *++ . (*&/'+) % *++
>rosstabulation? <impsonIs #arado%

!ata in two or more crosstabulations are often aggregated to produce a summary crosstabulation. He must be careful in drawing conclusions about the relationship between the two variables in the aggregated crosstabulation. <impsonI #arado%? 9n some cases the conclusions based upon an aggregated crosstabulation can be completely reversed if we look at the unaggregated data.
<catter !iagram and Trendline

A scatter diagram is a graphical presentation of the relationship between two quantitative variables. 0ne variable is shown on the hori1ontal a%is and the other variable is shown on the vertical a%is. The general pattern of the plotted points suggests the overall relationship between the variables. A trendline is an appro%imation of the relationship.
<catter !iagram and Trend line
A 'ositive #elationship
y
A 6egative #elationship
y
6o Apparent #elationship
y
+,ample: 'anthers ootball %eam

Scatter Diagram and %rend line %he 'anthers $ootball team is interested in investigating the relationship0 i$ any0 bet.een interceptions made and points scored1
x . Gumber of 9nterceptions * ' & * ' y . Gumber of #oints <cored *&*7 *6 '+
Scatter Diagram and %rend line %he 'anthers $ootball team is interested in investigating the relationship0 i$ any0 bet.een interceptions made and points scored1 x . Gumber of 9nterceptions * ' & * '
+,ample: 'anthers ootball %eam
y . Gumber of #oints <cored *&*7 *6 '+

y
Gumber of #oints <cored
'( '+ &( &+ *( *+ ( +
x + * & ' Gumber of 9nterceptions
$%ample? #anthers ootball Team
9nsights 4ained from the #receding <catter !iagram
@ @ @
The scatter diagram and trendline indicate a positive relationship between the number of interceptions and the number of points scored. Cigher points scored are associated with a higher number of interceptions. The relationship is not perfect; all plotted points in the scatter diagram are not on a straight line.
$%ample? #anthers ootball Team
9nsights 4ained from the #receding <catter !iagram
@ @ @
The scatter diagram and trendline indicate a positive relationship between the number of interceptions and the number of points scored. Cigher points scored are associated with a higher number of interceptions. The relationship is not perfect; all plotted points in the scatter diagram are not on a straight line.
%abular and "raphical 'rocedures

!ata :ualitative !ata Tabular 8ethods
@ requency !istribution @ ,elative req. !istribution @ #ercent req. !istribution @ >rosstabulation
:uantitative !ata Tabular 8ethods

@ requency !ist. @ ,el. req. !ist. @ = req. !ist. @ >um. req. !ist. @ >um. ,el. req. !istribution @ >um. = req. !istribution @ >rosstabulation
4raphical 8ethods
@ "ar 4raph @ #ie >hart
4raphical 8ethods
@ !ot #lot @ Cistogram @ 0give @ <tem-andEeaf !isplay @ <catter !iagram
+nd o$ Module V: Data Analysis
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PAN African eNetwork Project

Module V: Data Analysis

Copyright Amity University

Data and Statistical Data

Copyright Amity University

Descriptive Statistics: %abular and "raphical 'resentations

Copyright Amity University

Summari(ing )ualitative Data

Copyright Amity University

Copyright Amity University

+,ample: Marada -nn

,ating #oor "elow Average Average Above Average $%cellent Total

requency & ' ( ) * &+

Copyright Amity University

,elative requency !istribution

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'ercent re!uency Distribution

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,elative requency and #ercent requency !istributions

#ercent requency *+ *( &( .*+(*++) . *+ -( ( *++ */&+ . .+(

Copyright Amity University

Copyright Amity University

8arada 9nn :uality ,atings

Copyright Amity University

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$%ample? 8arada 9nn

9nsights 4ained from the #receding #ie >hart

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Summari(ing )uantitative Data

Summari(ing )uantitative Data

+,ample: 4udson Auto #epair

Copyright Amity University

$%ample? Cudson Auto ,epair

<ample of #arts >ost(D) for (+ Tune-ups

Copyright Amity University

Copyright Amity University

Copyright Amity University

Copyright Amity University

#elative re!uency and 'ercent re!uency Distributions

Copyright Amity University

,elative requency and #ercent requency !istributions

9nsights 4ained from the #ercent requency !istribution

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Parts (+() 5+5) 6+6) 7+7) )+)) *++-**+ Cost %&'

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.'+ .&( .&+ .*( .*+ .+( +

.'+ .&( .&+ .*( .*+ .+( +

.'+ .&( .&+ .*( .*+ .+( +

Copyright Amity University

Copyright Amity University

Copyright Amity University

Copyright Amity University

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0give with >umulative #ercent requencies

#arts >ost (D)

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$%ploratory !ata Analysis? <tem-and-Eeaf !isplay >rosstabulations and y <catter !iagrams

#ercent requency + ( &( .+(++) . + -( ( ++ */&+ . .+(

.'+ .&( .&+ .( .+ .+( +

.'+ .&( .&+ .( .+ .+( +

.'+ .&( .&+ .( .+ .+( +

>olonial 7 & '+

Gote? row totals are actually ++.+ due to rounding.

(>olonial and M D))N)/(All MD))N) % ++ . (&/-() % *++

(>olonial and M D))N)/(All >olonial) % ++ . (&/'+) % *++

y . Gumber of #oints <cored &7 *6 '+

'( '+ &( &+ ( + ( +