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Qualitative Research Designs
Qualitative Research Designs
Qualitative Research Designs
QUALITATIVE PARADIGM
Naturalistic paradigm Soft science Focus: usually broad Holistic Subjective Reasoning: dialectic, inductive Basis of knowing: meaning, discovery Shared interpretation Communication and observation Basic element of analysis: words Individual interpretations Uniqueness
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Based on holistic view & following beliefs: There is no single reality reality is based on perceptions it is different for each person changes over time What we know has meaning only within a given situation or context
The reasoning process in qualitative research involves: - perceptually putting pieces together to make wholes
This concept is closely related to wholism and proposes that a particular phenomenon is organized into a cluster of linked ideas, a gestalt.
Frameworks are not used the same as in quantitative The goal is not theory testing Each study should be guided by a particular philosophical stance Philosophical Stance assists to: directs the question(s) that are asked the observations which are made the interpretation of data
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Specify design before data collection Adhere to the design after study started Study design evolves over time Researcher Decisions include: How to obtain From whom to collect How to schedule How long
EMERGENT DESIGN A design that emerges as the researcher makes ongoing decisions reflecting what has already been learned Lincoln & Cuba (1985) not researcher laziness or sloppiness but rather desire to base inquiry on realities and viewpoints of those under study Key: realities and viewpoints that are NOT KNOWN or UNDERSTOOD AT THE OUTSET
Flexible, elastic, capable of adjusting Merging together of various data collection strategies Holistic, understand the whole Research intensely involved Research to become the research instrument Requires ongoing analysis of data to formulate subsequent strategies and to determine when field work is done
What is Bricolage?
Qualitative Designs
Four traditions described by nurse researcher: Ethnography Phenomenology Grounded Theory Historical Research
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ETHNOGRAPHY
Research tradition in anthropology Provides a framework for studying meanings, patterns, and experiences defined by a cultural group in a holistic fashion Ethnoscience (Cognitive Anthropology): focuses on the cognitive world of a culture semantic rules and shared meanings that shape behavoir
ETHNOGRAPHY
Focus: the culture of a group of people Assumption: every human group evolves a culture that guides members view of the world and the way they structure their experiences At times referred to as macroethnography: - able to study broadly defined cultures
At times referred to as microethnography able to study cultures using a very narrow focus
Ethnography Contd
Aim: to learn from rather than study members of a cultural group Two perspectives: Emic insiders view, the way the members of a culture envision their world Etic - outsiders interpretation of the experiences of that culture strive to get at cultural experiences that members do not talk about or may not even be consciously aware
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Ethnography Contd
Researcher as instrument - to study a culture it requires a certain level of intimacy needs to be developed become one within the culture
Ethnography Contd
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Sources of information in-depth interviews, records, charts, observations and other types of physical evidence are used
Ethnography Contd
Products of this research includes: rich and holistic descriptions describe normative behavoir and social patterns Information about health beliefs and health practices Facilitates an understanding of behavoirs affecting health and illness Leininger coined the phrase: ethnonursing research the study and analysis of local or indigneous peoples viewpoints, beliefs and practices about nursing care behavoir and processes of designated cultures
Phenomenology
Phenomenology is both philosophy and a research method Purpose of this research method is to describe experiences as they are lived to capture the lived experience Developed by Husserl & Heidegger an approach to thinking about peoples life experiences.
Phenomenology Contd
Philosophical Orientation view the person as integral with the environment World is shaped by the self and also shapes the self The person is a self within a body Person is referred to as embodied our bodies provide the possibility for the concrete actions of self in the world The body, the world and the concerns, unique to each person, are the context within which that person can be understood being in time
Phenomenology Contd
A phenomenological researcher asks the question: What is the essence of this phenomena as experienced by these people and what does it mean?
Assumption: there is an essence an essential variant structure Investigates subjective phenomena Belief that truths about reality are grounded in peoples lived experiences
Phenomenology Contd
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Phenomenology Contd
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CORPOREALITY
TEMPORALITY RELATIONALITY
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Phenomenology Contd
Phenomenologists believe human existence is meaningful and interesting Being in the world or Embodiment is a concept that acknowledges peoples physical ties to their world People: THINK SEE HEAR FEEL CONCIOUS OF THEIR BODIES INTERACTION WITH THE WORLD
Phenomenology Contd
Data sources: In-depth conversations Researcher helps the participant to describe lived experiences without leading the discussion Two or more interviews/conversations are needed Usually small number of participants (ie. 10 or less) May use participation, observation and introspective reflection
Phenomenology Contd
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INTUITING
Grounded Theory
Is an inductive research technique developed for health-related topics by Glaser & Strauss (1967) Emerged from the discipline of sociology
Grounded means the theory developed from the research is grounded or has it roots in the data from which is was derived
Philosophical Orientation: Based on symbolic interaction theory Explores how people define reality and how their beliefs are related to their actions Meaning is expressed through symbols such as words, religious objects, and clothing Symbolic meanings are different for each of us In social life - meanings are shared by groups socialization process Group life is based on consensus and shared meanings
Focus: is the evolution of a social experience the social and psychological stages that characterize a particular event of process
Methodology: does not begin with a focused research question the question emerges from the data
Constant Comparison: is used to develop and refine theoretically relevant categories and to identify the basic problem Categories that are elicited from the data are constantly compared with data obtained earlier so that commonalities and variations can be determined Categories can be condensed and collapsed
Data Sources: in-depth interviews are most common Observational methods Existing documents Usually a sample of 25 to 50 informants
Historical Research
Historiography examines events of the past Historians believe the greatest value of historical knowledge is an increased self-understanding
Philosophical Orientation: A very old science Primary question Where have we come from, who are we, and where are we going? Myths, past, present and future are not distinguishable Myths are a form of story telling
History moves beyond the myth Chronicling events, deeds, victories and stories about people and civilizations Comparing histories, identifying patterns Aim: to discovery new knowledge Seeking to answer questions concerning causes, effects and trends relating to past events To shed light on present behaviors and practices
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Usually small, non-random samples Concern: measure attributes and relationships in a popn Need a representative sample
Aim: to discover meaning, uncover multiple realities, therefore generalization is not a guiding criteria
Types of sampling: Convenience sampling Snowball sampling Theoretical sampling Purposeful sampling several strategies maximum variation sampling, extreme/deviant case sampling, and typical case sampling Simple random
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Sample Size
No firm establishment of criteria or rules Should be determined on the basis of informational needs
Is largely a function of: the purpose of the inquiry the quality of the informants The type of sampling strategy used
Sample Size
Guiding Principle is that of, DATA SATURATION: sampling to the point at which no new information is obtained and redundancy is achieved
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Evaluate the sample plan based on the following: Terms of its adequacy Terms of its appropriateness
Adequacy means
Appropriateness means -
Need to address validity and reliability Do the measures used by the researcher yield data reflecting the truth? Lincolon & Cuba (1985) four criteria: Credibility Dependability Confirmability Transferability
Credibility refers to confidence in the truth of the data Prolonged engagement Persistent observation Triangulation External checks peer debriefing & member checks Researcher credibility
Dependability refers to data stability over time and over conditions Steps to approach: Stepwise replication Inquiry audit
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Confirmability refers to the objectivity or neutrality of the data what does that mean? AUDIT TRAIL:
Transferability refers to the extent to which the findings from the data can be transferred to other settings or groups = similar to the concept of generalizability THICK DESCRIPTION: