[...] A sun eternally in eclipse, through a medium of smoked glass.

(Dickens, Hard Times)

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_ Chiara Pancotti and Giorgio Natali, 3^A

History: Introduction
1776-80 1830: First Industrial Revolution It mainly concerned textile and metallurgic manufacturing; It involves the introduction of the flying shuttle the steam engine.

18371901: Victorian Age It was a period of contrasts: great productivity and social transformation, but also of terrible exploitation above all of women and children; great richness, but also terrible poverty.

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Industry: Introduction

Coke begins to be used in indutsrial processes; Textile manufacturing, which was once based on a familiar system, now needs larger areas near sources like rivers and in order to feed electricity or water supply; Thanks to the coal, iron and steel industry begins to increase itself and the mechanical industry. This
creates a steady link between industries and cities.

The Industrial City

During the first half of the eighteenth century and intense urbanization process starts in Europe and in the United States. This process was a direct result of the industrial development which required large concentrations of labor and markets for their goods. Enormous masses of peasants were turned into labouring masses and urban proletariat, which would increase the size of the cities.
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Two factors increased the rapid growth of cities: The rise of liberalism in economy and society (freedom concerning private property, including ownership of urban land) as by the results of french revolution; The development of new means of transport (rails and cars), which made industry free from locating nearby sources of energy and facilitated the development of towns.

Architecture of the City

Cottages:

1st row: Cottages have rear doors and little gardens.

2nd row: Cottages have a wall in common with 3rd row. On the whole, theres a really bad ventilation.

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Gardens
Gardens of new houses are quiete regular; The houses around courtyards are double; Theres not enough air; In gardens everything of every kind is collected.

London, place for 9 people.

Factors of change

population growth technological progress that brought an extraordinary economic development and the associated increase in goods and services produced by agriculture, industry and tertiary activities transfer of the majority of the rural population in cities (urbanization) development of means of transport (roads, waterways, railroads, steamships) acceleration of change urban income and property speculation

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Effects on the cities

Increased density birth of suburbs lack of sanitary regulations lack of basic services overcrowding Problems in the disposal of sewage and rubbish open air sewers in the same areas where pedestrians, cars and animals circulate and children play houses built close to factories which were polluted with smoke traffic always stuck disintegration of urban space: abandonment of buildings and monuments building construction in green areas Unplanned growth in suburbs
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Expansion of the city

The first period of urban development was not characterized by expansion; though, the population density increased to the limits of survival. As a consequence, there were plans of "redevelopment". Then the expanding of buildings outside the centre of the city started. The first improvements made on cities date back to the second half of the 19th century and were originated mainly: - from the devastations caused by fires (Hamburg 1842, London 1861, Istanbul 1870) - from epidemics of cholera spread out in the most congested areas of seaports (Naples 1884, Venice 1885, Hamburg 1890)
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Measures

In England in 1830 several inquiries began to unfold in order to determinate what the health conditions of industrial cities and workingclass districts really were. In 1844 a law was passed establishing the minimum hygiene requirements for houses to rent. Four years after, the 'Public Health Act' defined a new idea of public control: for the first time there was a legal action against the indiscriminate freedom of private property.

Means of transport

1769 Watt invented the steam engine 1825 Stephenson created the locomotive development of railways growth and improvement of the transport facilities The new means of public transport- railways, subways, trams- shortened travel times and produced:
the intensification of people and goods along the roads the interconnection paths between the different urban and suburban areas

The management of roads and rail passes now state

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Solving problems

Awareness of the poverty of industrial cities; Protest of population and new tools to solve problems. Utopian socialism, which was the first current of the modern socialist thought, asked for a general reform of society and state, which has, as its purpose, the social justice and the nationalization of economic sources.
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