JOINING PROCESS MECHANICAL BONDING temporary semi permanent

ATOMIC BONDING
solid state liquid state solid / liquid state Liquid state Electric Chemical

Solid state cold welding friction welding diffusion welding ultrasonic welding

Electric

Arc welding Induction welding Resistance welding

Chemical Gas welding thermit welding Solid/liquid state brazing soldering adhesive bonding

Welding is the joining of two or more pieces Of metal by creating atom to atom bonds Advantages of Welding provides a permanent joint welded jt. strength more than parent metal can be accomplished on field as well Limitations manual and expensive in terms of labour cost involve high energy sources welding jt defects substantially reduce strength

Five basic types of weld joints

Types of edge preparations needed prior to welding

Edge prep. needed for Butt welding of sheets >9 mm

Different types of welding Symbols in use

WELD BEAD TYPES

Liquid state Welding

Electric Arc Welding

Temperature at the centre of the arc 6000o C For starting the arc 45 V for DC and upto 60 V for AC Voltage drops to 15 to 30 V after the arc established DCSP electrode is cathode deposition rate high, Heat penetration low thin sheet metals are welded

Different types of Arc Welding Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) Carbon Arc Welding Flux cored Arc Welding Electrodes used in Arc Welding Consumable Non consumable

Consumable Bare coated

SMAW

Coated consumable electrode used The coating melts to provide a protective atmosphere and slag for the welding operation Current 30 to 300 amps at 15 to 45 V, Power < 10 kW Current can be DC or AC. DC preferred for better arc stability DC usedfor sheet metal and AC for thick section welding used for carbon steels, low alloy steels, CI Advantages are better weld quality, arc stability

SAW

Automatic process, weld area shielded by fusible granular flux The flux forms a glass like slag which protects the weld joint Currents used 3000 to 4000 amps high welding rate, high weld quality, deeper penetration suitable only for flat or horizontal position Cost is high.

GMAW (MIG)

solid continuous consumable electrode used Argon, He, Nitrogen, CO2 used as shielding gas For welding Al alloys, stainless steels, Ar/He is used For low and medium carbon steels CO2 is used Process is automatic, higher deposition rate than SMAW

Mode of Weld Metal transfer from Electrode to the Work

Short Circuiting Globular Spray Pulsed Spray The mode of Metal transfer depends on the following parameters:

Welding current Electrode size Electrode composition Electrode stick out Shielding gas (if any)

Short Circuiting mode: Produces very low heat due to the usage of low welding current and voltage Metal transfer takes place for a short duration at the time when welding rod is in contact with the weld pool Surface tension of the melted metal pool helps in metal transfer electrode contacts the weld pool at random frequencies which range from 20 - 200 contacts /s Such transfer results in les spatter and well suited for thin section welding

Globular Transfer Transfer mode characterized by a drop two or three times larger than dia of the electrode The droplet gets detached from the electrode by some pinching force Weak magnetic forces and strong gravity forces also aid in the metal transfer Due to wobbling of the droplets at the electrode tip the arc stability is disturbed Heat affected zone is narrow but penetration becomes small and large spattering occurs

Spray Transfer Droplet size is small and directed axially in a straight line towards the weld pool There is a transition current above which such transfer takes place There is less spatter and weld bead is smooth Droplets vary between hundred per second to several hundreds per second Increase in current results in decrease in droplet size and increase in frequency High deposition rate Cannot be used in overhead or vertical welding since they cannot be supported by surface tension Pulsed Spray Transfer Type of spray transfer occurring at regularly spaced intervals Power source should be capable of producing pulsed current, hence expensive Droplet size equal to diameter of the electrode Flat weld beads are possible at comparatively low power

AWS Classification of GMAW Electrodes

The "1" designates an all position electrode, "2" is for flat and horizontal positions only; while "4" indicates an electrode that can be used for flat, horizontal, vertical down and overhead.

ER70S- 1X

Electrode Rod 70,000 psi Min. Tensile Strength Solid Position of welding Chemistry, Amount of Deoxidizers (Silicon, Manganese and/or Aluminum, Zirconium and Titanium) X=2,3,4,6,7 or G
16

Electrode Coating Materials: Claylike materials like silicate binders and powdered materials like Oxides, fluorides, metal alloys and cellulose Purposes of Electrode Coatings
To stabilize the arc to provide shielding to the weld zone to control electrode melting rate to act as flux to protect weld zone from oxides, nitrides and inclusions and produce a slag for weld pool protection to add alloying elements / deoxidizers to improve weld strength The deposited electrode coating is removed after each pass with the help of a wire brush

GTAW (TIG)

Non consumable electrode Thorium or Zirconium used to improve electron emission & inert gas is used for shielding can be used to weld all types of engg. Matls. Thin sheets of Al, Mg alloys welded by DCRP (200 amps) AC (500 amps) is preferred for the above alloys since oxides removed DCSP used for steels, copper & Ni alloys All types of joints can be produced

PAW
Transferred Non Transferred

Special type of GTAW where a plasma arc is directed at the weld area Arc can be transferred / non transferred type Advtgs are arc stability, better penetration control high travel speeds, excellent weld quality major limitation is the high equipment cost

Thermit Welding

A mixture of fine alumina and iron oxide mixed In the ratio 1:3.Temp. achievable 3000oC 8Al+3Fe3O4 = 9Fe + 4Al2O3 + heat Reaction time is around 30 s It is used in joining railroad rails, pipes and in Repairing heavy castings No finishing reqd.

Gas Welding Process Oxyacetylene flame welding Flame temperature around 3150oC Neutral, reducing and oxidising flames Reducing flame employed in welding CI Oxidising flame employed in welding brass, bronze The flame has three distinct zones Inner cone having higher temp. acetylene feather of temp around 2000oC Outer envelope 1250oC Combustion Equations are

Oxyacetylene Welding Torch

Resistance Welding Process It is a fusion welding process that utilizes a Combination of heat and pressure to accomplish Coalescence. Current used is very high 5000 to 20,000 amps, Voltage is low (10 V), time duration is small(0.1-0.4s) Functions of pressure are 1. To ensure contact between electrodes and work 2. To press the surfaces when welding temp reached Electrode materials are generally Cu or Cu alloys Desirable properties are high electrical conductivity high hardness

Spot Welding Process

Weld nugget 6 to 10 mm dia Current 3000 to 40,000 Amps

Application of RSW In automobile manufacturing unit (10,000 spot weld present in the body) In fabrication of various sheet metal parts In metal furniture making

Special Electrodes for Spot-Welding in an air operated rocker arm spot welding machine

Press type spot welding machines are used for welding larger workpieces

Seam-Welding Process
Overlapping nuggets Roll spot welds

Advantages Low cost High production rates Suitable for automation

Limitations o Well designed fixture necessary o Sheets of thickness > 4 mm of carbon steel cannot be seam welded because of the requirement of high amperage

Resistance Projection Welding

Projections produced by Embossing

A number of welds in one pass can be obtained Electrode life is enhanced Metals of different thicknesses can be welded

Projection Resistance welding of nuts and studs

Flash-Welding Process

Flash-welding process for end-to-end welding of solid rods or tubular parts.

Characteristics: o Impurities squeezed out during operation so weld quality is good o Machines are automated and large o Power requirement ranges from 10 kVA to 1500 kVA

Induction Welding

High frequency current in the range of 10 kHz to 300 kHz The primary source of heat is the eddy current induced into the workpiece. An important phenomenon in induction welding is the skin effect. This refers to the fact that electric current flows superficially. The penetration can be effectively controlled by proper choice of frequency. Industrial application include butt welding of pipes and continuous seam welding of tubes.

Cold pressure welding

Joining mechanism plastic deformation Applications thin sheets, wires and small electrical components Normally accomplished by special purpose machine Effectively used for non ferrous matls especially Al, Cu, and Al-Cu alloys Post joining process like annealing and machining may be required

Diffusion Welding

Mate the surfaces intimately after cleaning Keep them together at elevated temperature and appropriate pressure for a long time mechanism of joining is by diffusion major process parameters temp. press., time Applications joining of superalloys Major Advantage less distortion and residual stresses Pressure applied by dead weight, gas press. Heating done by resistance, furnace.

Diffusion Bonding and Superplastic Forming

Structures made by this process are thin and have high stiffness to weight ratios Hence the process is employed in aircraft and aerospace applications It produces parts with good dimensional accuracy and low residual stresses

Definition of Friction Welding

Friction welding is a solid state joining process that produces coalescence by the heat developed between two surfaces by mechanically induced surface motion.

Linnert, Welding Metallurgy, AWS, 1994

AWS Welding Handbook

Fusion Zone in Friction Welding

Shape of the fusion zone in friction welding as a function of the force applied and the rotational speed.

Continuous Drive

Friction Welding Joint Design

The joint face of at least one of the work piece must have circular symmetry (usually the rotating part). Typical joint configurations shown at right.

Rod

Tube

Rod to tube

Rod to plate

Tube to plate

Tube to disc

Radial Friction Welding

F

Used to join collars to shafts and tubes. Two tubes are clamped in fixed position. The collar to be joined is placed between the tubes. The collar is rotated producing frictional heat. Radial forces are applied to compress the collar to complete welding.

F F

F F F

Friction Welding

Advantages high efficiency in terms of energy utilisation dissimilar metals can be joined

Limitations one of the two parts to be joined must be a body of revolution only forgeable materials can be friction welded

Friction Stir Welding

Parts to be joined are clamped firmly. A rotating hardened steel tool is driven into the joint and traversed along the joint line between the parts. The rotating tool produces friction with the parts, generating enough heat and deformation to weld the parts together. Al alloy plates upto 75 mm thick can be welded by this process

Butt welds

Overlap welds

Friction Welding for Mounting Ti Alloy Rotor Blades

Shielding Gas & Induction Pre-heat

Weld Nub

Force

Linear Friction Weld

Schneefeld, D,et al. Friction Welding Process for Mounting Blades of a Rotor for a Flow Machine, US Patent 6,160,237 Dec 12, 2000

Definition of Ultrasonic Welding

A solid state welding process in which coalescence is produced at the faying surfaces by the application of high frequency vibratory energy while the work pieces are held together under moderately low static pressure.

(a) Components of an ultrasonic-welding machine for lap welds. The lateral vibrations of the tool tip case plastic deformation and bonding at the interface of the workpieces. (b) Ultrasonic seam welding using a roller.

Ultrasonic Welding Mechanism

A static clamping force is applied perpendicular to the interface between the work pieces. The contacting sonotrode oscillates parallel to the interface. Combined effect of static and 10-75 KHz oscillating force produces deformation which promotes welding.
Clamping force Mass

wedge Transducer

Sonotrode tip workpiece Anvil Force

Advantages of Ultrasonic Welding

No heat is applied and no melting occurs. Permits welding of thin to thick sections. Welding can be made through some surface coatings. Pressures used are lower, welding times are shorter, and the thickness of deformed regions are thinner than for cold welding.

Limitations of Ultrasonic Welding

The thickness of the component adjacent to the sonotrode tip must not exceed relatively thin gages because of power limitations of the equipment. Process is limited to lap joints. Butt welds can not be made because there is no means of supporting the workpieces and applying clamping force.

Applications of Ultrasonic Welding

Assembling of electronic components such as diodes and semiconductors with substrates. Electrical connections to current carrying devices including motors, field coils, and capacitors. Encapsulation and packaging. Plastic parts

Explosion-Welding Process

Schematic illustration of the explosion-welding process: (a) constantinterface clearance gap and (b) angular-interface clearance gap.

Mechanical interlocking produced during Explosive welding It is popular for Manufacturing of heat Exchangers and Chemical processing Equipment

Limitation of the process is that it cannot be used for welding hard, brittle materials

Explosion-Welded Joints

Cross-sections of explosion-welded joints: (a) titanium (top) on low-carbon steel (bottom) and (b) incoloy 800 (iron-nickel-base alloy on low-carbon steel. The wavy interfaces shown improve the shear strength of the joint. Some combinations of metals, such as tantalum and vanadium, produce a much less wavy interface. If the two metals have little metallurgical compatibility, an interlayer may be added that has compatibility with both metals. Source: Courtesy of DuPont Company.

Typical Fusion-Weld Zone in Gas or Arc welding

Grain Structure
Deep Weld Shallow Weld

Weld Bead Microhardness Profile

Bead produced by Laser Beam Welding

WELDING DEFECTS VARIOUS DISCONTINUITIES IN WELDED JOINT

Defects in Fusion Welds

UNDERCUTTING: Caused by excessive current in arc welding UNDERFILLING: Caused due to inadequate filler metal deposition

OVERLAP: More material deposition

LACK OF PENETRATION: Penetration refers to the depth that the weld extends into the base metal of the joint. Lack of penetration means that fusion has not penetrated deeply enough to the root of the joint. Causes are low energy input, wrong polarity and high welding speed

ARC STRIKES: Caused when the welder accidentally strikes the electrode onto the base metal resulting in deep scar on the part.

CRACKS: Fracture type interruptions in the weld itself or in the HAZ. Cracks developed in the weld zone is also known as hot cracks. Such cracks occur in ferrous alloys with high percentages of sulfur and phosphorous and also in alloys having high freezing range.
HAZ cracks are called cold cracks. They are formed because of the brittleness of the HAZ. Such cracks can be eliminated by Avoiding hydrogen during welding Controlling cooling rate Employing multipass welding technique

Types of Cracks in Welded Joints

LAMELLAR TEARING:
A long and continuous visual separation line between the HAZ and the base metal. It is caused by Presence of Mn, S in the base metal Improper weld configuration which led to development of high residual stresses in the transverse direction

Distortion of Parts After Welding

Residual Stresses in Straight Butt Joint

CONCAVE OR CONVEX WELD BEADS

Excessive concavity or convexity should be avoided. The avoidance can be accomplished by o Proper selection of current in arc welding o Proper selection of electrode size.

Misalignment: occur mostly when two different thickness plates are welded

Photographic view of porosity defect in welding

Photographic view of Spatter defect in welding

WELDABILITY OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS

Steels: They are readily weldable than copper or aluminium. However increase in carbon content in the steels result in a decrease in its weldability. Austenitic steels are readily weldable Ferritic and martensitic steels are not that weldable and they often require preheating and Special electrodes. Ferritic steels are more susceptible to hot cracking

Aluminium and its alloys: More susceptible to hot cracking, oxide inclusions, Hydrogen porosity
Copper and its alloys: Because of high thermal conductivity of copper preheating Is required to counteract the heat sink effect. TIG or MIG is preferred. For copper alloy Brass presence of Zinc is the main problem Bronze require careful cleaning and deoxidization to prevent porosity

BRAZING
It is a joining process in which a filler metal is melted and distributed by capillary action between the Faying surfaces of the metal parts being joined. No melting of the base metals occur. Filler metal (brazing metal) has a m.p. 450oC but below the m.p. of the base metal. The clearance gap between the mating surfaces is an imp. Parameter deciding strength of the Joint. Clearances are small. Use of flux like borax, fluorides, chlorides is Essential.

Different Brazing methods

Torch brazing

Furnace brazing

Resistance brazing

Advantages of brazing over welding

any metals can be joined faster and more consistent multiple joints can be brazed simultaneously it can be used to join thin parts HAZ and associated problems are eliminated less heat and power required

Limitations of Brazing
joint strength is less high service temperatures weaken the joint colour of the metal at the brazed part not same as the colour of the base metal

Soldering
Soldering is similar to brazing. No melting of base Metals occur. Surfaces to be soldered must be precleaned. An appropriate flux is applied to the Faying surfaces and then the surfaces are heated. The filler metal called solder is added to the joint which distributes itself between the closely fit Parts. The filler metal is mostly an alloy of lead tin Having a lower strength and m.p. than base metals Soldering is mostly carried out by electrical Resistance heating method.

Reflow Soldering

Screening solder paste onto a printed circuit board in reflow soldering.

Wave-Soldering Process

(a) Schematic illustration of the wave-soldering process. (b) SEM image of a wave-soldered joint on a surface-mount device.

Advantages of Soldering
very low energy input good electrical and thermal conductivity in the joint air tight and liquid tight joints possible easy to repair and rework

Limitations of Soldering
very low joint strength possible weakening of the joint in elevated temp.