Animal Endocrine Systems And Reproduction

Chapter 38: Parts of all sections Chapter 42

Our goals:

- Describe the functions of an endocrine system, with examples

- Diagram the different points in an endocrine pathway and describe the result - Explain how signals elicit a response in a cell

- Understand why some cells do NOT respond to signals

- Provide examples of signaling responses in the environment

A Negative Feedback Loop: Result: Steady state

Stimulus

+
Sensor
The sensor and effector may be a single cell, an endocrine organ, or a series of endocrine organs.

Effector

Response

A Positive Feedback Loop:

Stimulus

Result: enhanced response, must be interrupted or broken by external signal or event

+
Sensor

+ +
Effector

The sensor and effector may be a single cell, an endocrine organ, or a series of endocrine organs.

Response

Cell-surface receptors bind hydrophilic signal molecules:

Peptide and amine hormones Receptor

Plasma membrane of target cell

Peptide and amine hormones are hydrophilic and bind to cellmembrane receptors activating second messenger pathways, which change the functional state of the target cell.

Intracellular receptors also bind hydrophobic signals

Steroid hormone New protein mRNA Receptor protein

Steroid hormones are hydrophobic and diffuse into the target cell, where they bind a cytoplasmic or nuclear receptor that allows them to act as transcription factors to alter the gene expression of the cell.

Nucleus DNA

Hormone-receptor complex

An example of how different signals control a biological event:

Brain

Prothoracic gland
Ecdysone hormone Ecdysone triggers molting.

PTTH
Juvenile hormone

Juvenile hormone prevents molting into an adult form. When juvenile hormone drops to low levels, the insect molts into an adult.

The brain produces PTTH in response to a blood meal, which acts on the prothoracic gland to produce ecdysone.

Eggs

1st nymph

2nd nymph

3rd nymph

4th nymph

5th nymph

Adult

Hypothalamus Releasing factors

Anterior pituitary gland TSH, FSH, LH, ACTH, GH, prolactin Posterior pituitary gland Oxytocin, ADH Adrenal glands Cortisol, aldosterone, epinephrine Thyroid gland Thyroid hormones, calcitonin Parathyroid glands PTH

Pineal gland Melatonin

Pancreas Insulin, glucagon Testis (male) Testosterone

Ovary (female) Estrogens, progesterone

Stimulus

High blood glucose (right after a meal)

Low blood glucose (several hours after a meal)

Sensor

Pancreas

Pancreas

Insulin

Glucagon

Effector
Body cells take up glucose Muscle and liver take up glucose and store it as glycogen Muscle and liver break down glycogen and release glucose

Response

Decrease in blood glucose

Increase in blood glucose

An example of signals outside the body: Pheromones

Trail Pheromones

Pheromones for Social interactions

Our goals:
- List similarities and differences between asexual and sexual reproduction - Explain the connection between meiosis and fertilization - Compare the benefits and costs of internal vs external fertilization - Explain adaptations that allowed reproduction to take place on land - Describe similarities and differences in sperm production and oocyte production - Understand and explain the relationships between hormone levels and fertility - Understand and explain the relationships between hormone levels and childbirth

Asexual Reproduction
Binary Fission Budding

Fragmentation

Parthenogenesis

What are some asexual reproduction strategies?

Budding occurs when offspring grow directly from the parent's body. Fission splits a parent into two daughters of roughly equal size and composition that then grow until they reach adult size.

www.bergen.edu

www-csgc.ucsd.edu

What are some asexual reproduction strategies?

Fragmentation and regeneration occur when segments of the parent's body are broken off, then regrow all missing body structures to form a complete, living individual.

www.tutorvista.com

Strange but True: Komodo Dragons Show that "Virgin Births" Are Possible

Parthenogenesis: the growth and development of embryos without fertilization

(d) Komodo dragon hatching from an asexually-produced egg.

animals.nationalgeographic.com

Haploid gamete (1n)

Haploid gamete (1n)

Fertilization

Meiosis II

Meiosis I

Diploid zygote (2n)

Mode of reproduction and environmental conditions

Sexual reproduction M F

Asexual reproduction

F
If each individual has two offspring, an asexually reproducing population will double in size every generation.

If each couple has two offspring, a sexually reproducing population will not increase in size.

How do sexual reproduction strategies evolve?

Because eggs are large and expensive to produce (while sperm are small and cheap), females generally invest more in offspring than do males. The general female reproductive strategy is to mate only with the highest quality males. The general male reproductive strategy is to mate with as many females as possible (and, by implication, invest the minimum into each offspring). Males constantly evolve ways to impress a large number of females and keep other males from mating with them. Sexual reproduction strategies involve balancing the sexually-selected desires of the parents versus the need to maximize offspring survival.

How does fertilization occur in animals?

Egg and sperm (haploid gametes) fuse to produce a diploid zygote in the process of fertilization.

Internal fertilization occurs when the sperm meets an egg inside the body cavity of a female.
External fertilization occurs when the sperm meets an egg outside of the body. Female and male reproductive systems contain specialized organs (called gonads) that produce, store, and deliver gametes. The simplest animals lack gonads, producing gametes from undifferentiated body cells. These gametes are then stored in the body cavity until the excretory system releases them.

What are some strategies for external fertilization?

Spawning is the gathering of individuals in the same area to release gametes at the same time. Spawning is common among aquatic animals that practice external fertilization, but terrestrial spawning is quite rare.

http://www.in-fisherman.com/2012/12/11/fish-spawning/

What are some strategies for internal fertilization?

Internal fertilization is advantageous because it provides higher fertilization rates. Gametes are contained within a small space at the optimal temperature and pH for fertilization to occur. Moving fertilization into the mother's body also allows offspring to develop more fully before facing the hostile world, thereby increasing offspring survival rate. To achieve successful internal fertilization, animals must first find mates.

Many animals use pheromones to attract mates from a distance.

Many species have evolved elaborate courtship rituals during which an individual, usually the female, judges the fitness of prospective mates.

Making the transition from water to land:

Amniotes

Fishes AmphibiansReptiles Birds

Mammals

Amnion

Amnion

Chorion
Allantois

Yolk sac

The hypothalamus secretes GnRH, which acts on the anterior pituitary gland.

Hypothalamus
GnRH

Anterior pituitary
FSH LH

The anterior pituitary gland secretes FSH and LH, which stimulate the testes in males to secrete testosterone, and on the ovaries in females to secrete estrogen and progesterone.

Gonads Testis
Testosterone Development of male reproductive structures during embryogenesis Development of male secondary sexual characteristics during puberty Maintenance of health in adult

Ovary
Estrogens and progesterone Development of female reproductive structures during embryogenesis Development of female secondary sexual characteristics during puberty Regulation of menstrual cycle Support of pregnancy Maintenance of health in adult

What are the major reproductive structures of the human male?

In terrestrial mammals, the testes are usually held outside of the body in a pouch of loose skin called the scrotum. Most male mammals have two testes.

Sperm travel from each testis through a tube to the ejaculatory duct called the vas deferens. The two vas deferens join to form a short ejaculatory duct.
The penis is the male reproductive organ that transfers sperm to the female reproductive system; the end of the penis is called the glans. Several glands add secretions to the sperm, forming seminal fluid (or semen). The seminal vesicles are glands that excrete a fluid containing fructose and amino acids, an energy source and nutrients for the sperm. The prostate gland secretes an alkaline fluid that serves to neutralize the acidic environment of the vagina.

The Male Reproductive System

Bladder

Seminal vesicles Prostate gland Bulbourethral gland

Ejaculatory duct Urethra Penis Vas deferens Epididymis Seminal vesicle Prostate gland

Testes
Scrotum

Bulbourethral gland

Vas deferens
Epididymis Seminiferous tubules Testis
Sperm develop in the seminiferous tubules, mature in the epididymis, and travel in the vas deferens.

Spermatogenesis

Tail

Flagellum

Midpiece
Head Mitochondrion Cytoplasm Plasma membrane Nucleus Acrosome

The Female Reproductive System

Oviduct

Ovary Uterus Cervix

Ureter Oviduct Ovary Uterus

Cervix
Vagina

Clitoris
Labium majora Labium minora Urethra

Rectum
Bladder

Cyclical changes in hormone concentration control human female reproductive cycles.

The uterine cycle refers to the changes that occur to the uterus. The ovarian cycle involves the development and release of an egg from one of the ovaries. These two cycles are coordinated by the same hormones used in males to control androgen production and sperm formation in the testes. The menstrual cycle (ovarian cycle and uterine cycle) starts on the day the uterine lining begins to shed, the beginning of a menstruation or "a period. After ovulation, the ovarian follicle becomes the corpus luteum Corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone, which Stimulates the endometrium to thicken Prepares the uterus for implantation of the embryo Inhibits the hypothalamus, reducing FSH and LH secretion

Oogenesis

Meiosis I arrest is released in one or a few oocytes during each menstrual cycle.

Meiosis II arrest is released upon fertilization.

How do eggs develop in humans? Oogenesis

2n Differentiation and onset of Meiosis I 2n Completion of Meiosis I and onset of Meiosis II n Entry of sperm triggers completion of Meiosis II Diploid cell in embryo

Ovary

Primary oocyte
(arrested in prophase of Meiosis I; present at birth) Corpus n First luteum polar body Secondary oocyte (arrested at metaphase of Meiosis II; released from ovary) n Second polar body

Growing follicle

Mature follicle Sperm Ovulation Ruptured follicle

Ovum (haploid)

Anterior pituitary hormone levels

LH surge Luteinizing hormone (LH) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

The LH surge causes ovulation.

Follicle development

Follicle cells secrete estradiol and the corpus luteum secretes progesterone.
Follicle Maturing follicle Ovulation Corpus luteum Degenerating corpus luteum

Ovarian hormone levels

Estradiol

Progesterone Ovulation

High levels of estradiol cause the uterine lining to thicken, and high levels of progesterone maintain the thickened uterine lining.

Follicular phase Menstruation

Luteal phase

Uterine lining

The changes in the uterine lining are coordinated with those of the developing oocyte.
1 7 14 21 28

Day of menstrual cycle

Cleavage starts Fertilization of ovum

Oviduct Secondary oocyte Blastocyst (implanted) Endometrium Uterus

Ovary

Ovulation

Ovum cytoplasm

Ovum nucleus

Corona radiata Zona pellucida Egg plasma membrane

Sperm Cytoplasmic nucleus vesicle Fused plasma membranes

4 1

The sperm nucleus enters the eggs cytoplasm.

Multiple sperm contact the oocyte.

Sperm release hydrolytic enzymes from their acrosomes to aid movement through the two outer layers of the oocyte.

The plasma membranes of the sperm and oocyte fuse with each other, causing the oocyte to complete meiosis II and block the entrance of other sperm.

The stages of human pregnancy.

Last menstrual period Fertilization Implantation

Month Week Trimester Stage Birth classification

50% chance of survival

Childbirth on average

First

Second

Third

Embryogenesis

Fetal development
Preterm Term
Post-term

Cyclical changes in hormone concentration control human female reproductive cycles.

- If egg is not fertilized Drop in LH shuts down corpus luteum and its hormones Menstruation is triggered Hypothalamus and pituitary stimulate development of a new follicle

If the egg is fertilized and pregnancy occurs, The embryo releases the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). hCG induces LH and FSH production The uterine lining is maintained Menstruation does not occur

The number of cycles that a human female undergoes is limited to ~500. The end of reproductive cycling in women is called menopause.

Female and male nuclei fusing

Inner cell mass Blastocyst cavity

Zygote

Two-cell stage

Four-cell stage

1. Fertilization

Morula

Blastocyst

Uterus

2. Cleavage
Meoitic spindle Sperm

Zona pellucida

Polar body

Corona radiata
Epiblast Hypoblast Uterine wall

3. Implantation

4. Bilaminar embryo

5. Gastrulation
Epiblast Hypoblast

Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm

Notochord

Mothers blood vessels Allantois

Placenta

Amniotic cavity Amnion

Yolk sac

Embryo

Chorion
Chorionic villi

Human placenta at 84 days of pregnancy

Placenta

Fetal Growth. The third month to birth is characterized by growth and maturation of the fetus. Pregnancy lasts about 40 weeks from the last menstrual period or 38 weeks after fertilization.

Uterus Day 44 embryo

Neural tube

Day 25 embryo
Notocord Yolk sac Somite

6
Day 21 embryo

Organogenesis. From the third to the eighth week, the three germ layers give rise to the major organs. The ectoderm becomes the outer layer of the skin and nervous system, the mesoderm makes up the circulatory system, muscle, and bone, and the endoderm becomes the lining of the digestive tract and lungs.

Labor is a hormonally controlled positive feedback loop:

Estrogen from ovaries Oxytocin from fetus and pituitary

Induces oxytocin receptors on uterus Positive feedback

Stimulates uterus to contract

Stimulates placenta to make Prostaglandins

Stimulate more contractions of uterus

Pregnancy ends when a baby is born.

Labor is the process of childbirth, which involves powerful contractions of the uterus.

Contractions occur in regular intervals, essentially squeezing the baby

out of the uterus and into the birth canal.

Hormonal changes induce birth

Estrogen makes the uterus more sensitive to oxytocin Oxytocin acts with prostaglandins to initiate labor Cervix dilates Baby is expelled by strong contractions of the uterus Placenta dislodges and is expelled after the baby