Regulation: Endocrine System and Hormones

Textbook Chapter 33

Regulatory Systems: Nervous and Endocrine

Nervous System
Fast acting Short-lived effects Messages are

Endocrine System
Slower activity Longer-lasting effects Messages are

electrochemical (action potential and neurotransmitters) Messages travel along neurons

chemical (hormones) Messages travel through the bloodstream

Endocrine System and Hormones

The endocrine system is made up of glands that

secrete hormones into the bloodstream The exocrine system is made up of glands that make secretions that are released out of the body Hormones are the endocrine chemical messengers:
They are usually carried in the blood They effect the metabolic activity and cause specific

changes in target cells or glands They attach to receptors on/in target cells and either activate or oppress protein synthesis in that cell OR activate enzymes already present in the cytoplasm

Hormone Release and Specificity

Hormones are released by glands into the blood stream, which carries the hormone throughout the body Hormones then diffuse out of capillaries into the interstitial fluid Hormones only affect cells with matching receptors and cannot bind to cells with different receptors The target cell action in response to a hormone is based on two things: type of receptors and intracellular proteins based on the target cell

Example of Different Target Cell Reaction

Hormone Release is Regulated by Positive or Negative Feedback

The release of most hormones are regulated by

negative feedback mechanisms (ie. ADH, thyroxine)

In endocrine negative feedback mechanisms, the

effects or release of a hormone usually inhibits the gland that produces the source of the hormone.
The release of some hormones are regulated by

positive feedback mechanisms (ie. oxytocin)

In endocrine positive feedback mechanisms, the

effects or release of a hormone usually excites the gland to produce more of that hormone However, all positive feedback mechanisms eventually stop by the use of a negative feedback mechanism

Classes of Hormones
Peptide Hormones: chains of amino acids (ie.

insulin) Amino-Acid Derivative Hormones: hormones derived from one or two amino acids (ie. epinephrine)
Peptide hormones and amino acid derivatives usually

bind to receptors on cell membranes

Steroid Hormones: lipid-based hormones

synthesized from cholesterol made of complex rings of carbon and hydrogen atoms (ie. testosterone)
Steroid hormones usually bind to receptors located in

the cell cytoplasm or nucelus

Prostaglandins: made of two fatty acid carbon

chains attached to a five carbon ring

Made by every cell Act locally

Types of Hormones

Peptidehormone

Amino-acid derivative

Steroid hormone

Peptide and Amino Acid Hormone Effect on Cells

1.
2.

3.

Peptide and amino-acid derivative hormones cause the activation or inhibition of enzyme activity already present in the cell Peptide and amino-acid derivative hormones cannot enter the cell because the plasma membrane is hydrophobic These hormones rely on a second messenger system to produce effects on the cell The most common second messenger is cyclicAMP The hormone binds to a receptor on the cell membrane The binding activates a G protein attached to the receptor The G protein stimulates adenylyl cyclase to produce

Peptide and Amino Acid Hormone Effect on Cells

Peptide and Amino Acid Hormone Effect Animation

Steroid Hormone Effect on Cells

Steroid hormones cause proteins to be produced or not

produced by interacting with the cellular DNA of target cells Steroid hormones are hydrophobic like the plasma membrane, so they diffuse through the plasma membrane 1. The steroid hormone diffuses through the cell membrane 2. The hormone binds to a receptor in the cytoplasm that carries it into the nucleus, or just to a receptor in the nucleus directly 3. The hormone-receptor complex binds to a specific part of the DNA 4. This causes RNA polymerase to bind to a promoter cite 5. RNA polymerase transcribes DNA into mRNA 6. The mRNA leaves the nucleus, binds to a ribosome, and causes the synthesis of the protein instructed by the

Steroid Hormone Effect on Cells

Steroid Hormone Effect on Cells

Endocrine Glands and their Hormones

Hypothalamus: ADH, oxytocin, releasing hormones Pituitary Gland: (anterior) ACTH, TSH, GH, PRL, FSH, LH

(posterior) oxytocin and ADH

Pineal Gland: melatonin Thyroid Gland: thyroxine, calcitonin Parathyroid Glands: parathyroid hormone Thymus Gland: thymosins Heart: atrial natriuretic peptide hormone Adrenal Glands: (medulla) epinephrine, norepinephrine (cortex)

glucocorticoids, aldosterone, testosterone

Kidney: erythropoietin Fat: leptin Pancreas: glucagon, insulin Testes: androgens (testosterone) Ovaries: estrogen, progesterone

Endocrine Glands and their Hormones

The Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus: perceives impulses from the

brain, scans the chemical composition of the blood, and sends chemical signals to the pituitary gland It is the connection between the two regulatory systems Controls body temperature, blood pressure, emotions Secretes hormones called releasing factors that control the secretions of the anterior pituitary gland Creates two hormones: oxytocin and ADH, that

The Pituitary Gland

The anterior pituitary gland produces its own hormones, the

posterior pituitary gland releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus

The pituitary gland produces hormones that controls most of the

other glands
Releasing hormones delivered from the hypothalamus by

neurosecretory cells either cause or inhibit the anterior pituitary to secrete its own hormones
Hormones of the anterior pituitary gland:
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Growth hormone (GH): Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Prolactin (PRL) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Endorphins: Hormones of the posterior pituitary gland (produced in

hypothalamus):

Pituitary Gland Hormones

Oxytocin and Prolactin

Oxytocin stimulates the contraction of smooth

muscles in the uterus and the production of milk during and after childbirth Oxytocin binds to milk gland muscles, and causes them to contract, pushing out milk Prolactin stimulates milk production and breast development Both hormones are regulated by positive feedback mechanisms during breast-feeding and childbirth

Hormones in Breastfeeding

Metabolism Hormones
Thyroxine is released by the thyroid gland The hypothalamus produces thyroid-releasing

hormone (TRH), which stimulates the anterior pituitary to release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and release thyroxine. Thyroxine is an iodine containing hormone that regulates and controls cellular metabolism: it regulates the rate of fat, protein, carbohydrate metabolism and the rate of cellular respiration Thyroxine is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism Hyperthyroidism
High blood pressure, weight loss, overheating, irritability

Hypothyroidism
Leads to low blood pressure, overweight, often cold,

lethargy

Iodine Deficiency

Stress Response
The sympathetic nervous system stimulates the adrenal

medulla to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine, which trigger the fight-or-flight response Stress triggered by epinephrine and norepinephrine is short-term stress and is not bad for you Epinephrine and norepinephrine carry out the functions of the sympathetic nervous system and increase blood glucose levels through the breakdown of glycogen Long-term stress is triggered by the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary gland. Long-term stress is unhealthy if prolonged ACTH stimulates the release of glucocorticoids and androgens (mineralcorticoids) from the adrenal cortex
Glucocorticoids break down fats and proteins to increase

blood glucose levels; they also suppress immune response Androgens (minearlcorticoids) increase sodium ion and water retention and increase blood pressure and blood volume

Short vs. Long Term Stress Response

Reproductive Hormones: Males

The male reproductive glands are the testes, which

are responsible for spermatogenesis and testosterone Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is made in the hypothalamus and stimulates the release of FSH and LH Luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone Testosterone helps regulate sperm, and stimulates secondary male sex characteristics, development, and growth spurts. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) from the anterior pituitary, with the help of testosterone, stimulates Sertoli cells to produce sperm cells Reproductive hormones are regulated through negative feedback

Spermatogenesis and Testosterone

Reproductive Hormones: Females

The female reproductive hormone glands are the

ovaries, which are responsible for the production of egg cells and the hormones estrogen and progesterone Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is made in the hypothalamus and stimulates the release of FSH and LH Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the production of the corpus lutem, which produces estrogen and progesterone Estrogen stimulates the production of secondary female sex characteristics, breast development, and menstruation Progesterone is important in the regulation of the menstrual cycle, as it stimulates the shedding of the uterine lining Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates follicle

Glucose Homeostasis
The pancreas is both an exocrine and endocrine organ:
Cortical (cortex) cells release digestive enzymes

Islet cells produce endocrine hormones

The main islet of Langerhan cells: produce endocrine

hormones, are:
islet cells produce glucagon

islet cells produce insulin

Glucagon and insulin work together with a negative

feedback mechanism to maintain glucose homeostasis Insulin targets liver and muscle cells and causes increased glucose uptake and metabolism Glucagon targets liver and muscle cells and causes increased glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen into glucose) and gluconeogenesis (production of glucose)

Glucose Homeostasis

Calcium Homeostasis
Calcium homeostasis is regulated by a negative

feedback mechanism involving calcitonin and parathyroid hormone Calcitonin is produced in the thyroid gland, and lowers calcium levels in the blood by depositing calcium in the bones and reducing sodium ion reabsorption during excretion Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is produced in the parathyroid gland, and increases calcium levels in the blood by releasing calcium from the bones, increasing calcium ion reabsoprtion during excretion, and increasing sodium intake through the intestines with the help of vitamin D

Calcium Homeostasis

Sodium and Water Balance

Sodium water balance is directly regulated by aldosterone

(mineralcorticoids), which increases the reabsorption of sodium ions and water, leading to increased blood volume and pressure Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), produced in the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary gland increases the permeability of the collecting ducts in nephrons, increasing water reabsorption and increasing blood pressure Decreased reabsorption is caused by the lack of aldosterone and ADH Aldosterone is produced by the adrenal cortex A decrease in sodium ion levels in the blood or an increase of potassium ion levels in the blood directly stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce aldosterone A decrease in blood volume or blood pressure stimulates the kidney to produce the enzyme renin, which catalyzes angiotensin II, a hormone that stimulates the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) can also directly stimulate the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone Increased blood pressure or blood volume causes the heart to

Sodium and Water Balance

Other Hormones
Growth Hormone: controls growth by increasing bone

size and stimulating mitosis Endorphins: suppress pain by blocking receptors in the brain Erythropoietin: increases the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow; produced in the kidneys in response to low oxygen levels Thymosine: stimulates the maturation of white blood cells Melatonin: regulates sleeping cycles; produced in the pineal gland; not fully understood Leptin: thought to increase appetite; produced in adipose cells; not fully understood Melanocyte-stimulating hormone: stimulates the melanogenesis in melanocytes; produced in the anterior pituitary gland

Review
What are the hormones associated with water/sodium balance? Angiotensin II, ANP, ADH, ACTH, aldosterone

The most common second messenger is

cyclicAMP In males, FSH is responsible for Spermatogenesis

The hormones that trigger and carry out the long term stress response

are ACTH, glucocorticoids, aldosterone

Osteoporosis can be a result of the excessive secretion of the parathyroid gland The dynamic equilibrium produced by glucagon and insulin is controlled by

Negative feedback mechanism

What are all the hormones that the anterior pituitary gland produces?
TSH, FSH, LH, GH, PRL, MSH, ACTH, endorphins