Lecture 6

Shot

Receiver 0
Layer 1

Seismic Record

Trough

+
Peak

Travel Time (2 way) in msec

Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer 2

Impedance Increase

Layer 2 Layer 3 Layer 3

Impedance Decrease

Layer 4

Layer 3 Layer 4

Impedance Increase

Impedance = Velocity * Density

Peak over Trough is an Increase in Impedance

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L 6 Seismic Reflections

The Ideal Seismic Response

Able to resolve boundaries of beds a few meters thick
1 meter

Increase in Impedance

Decrease in Impedance

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L 6 Seismic Reflections

Scale for Seismic Data

Lamina Lamina Sets Beds Bed Sets Parasequences Parasequence Sets Sequences Sequence Sets

Although seismic data can not image small-scale stratal units, it can image mid- to large-scale units The big advantage of seismic data is areal coverage

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L 6 Seismic Reflections

Seismic - Units 10s of Meters Thick

Predominantly

Shale

Predominantly

Sand

Predominantly

Shale

10 m
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L 6 Seismic Reflections

Wave Equation Lingo

Rarefaction Compression

A = Amplitude

= Wavelength
length, ft or m

P = Period
time

Period = Time for the waveform to travel 1 wavelength

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Dp = Pulse Duration
time
L 6 Seismic Reflections

Basic Equations 1. P = 1 / f 2.

=V*P = V/f

3. d = V * T / 2 where P = Period f = Frequency = Wavelength V = Velocity d = distance (depth) T = time

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L 6 Seismic Reflections

Back to Basics
Seismic energy travels down and is reflected off acoustic boundaries
Shot Receiver Seismic Record
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Increase in impedance

0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3

Increase in impedance
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1.4

L 6 Seismic Reflections

Acoustic Structure of the Earth

Imped
Low High

Shot

Receiver

Reflection Coefficients
C O N V O L U T I O N

Pulse

Seismic Trace

I1 = 1 * V1
I2 =
2

* V2

I3 =
I4 =

3
4

* V3
* V4

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L 6 Seismic Reflections

That Pesky Pulse

If the frequency content (Bandwidth) is very large, then the pulse approaches a spike and we can resolve fine-scale stratigraphy Typically the frequency content is limited to about 10 to 50 Hz (BW = 40), which limits our resolution

Reflection Coefficients

Ideal Pulse

Seismic Trace

Typical Seismic Pulse Trace

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L 6 Seismic Reflections

Types of Pulses
Reflection Coefficients

Minimum Phase
Causal (real no motion before wave arrives) Front loaded Peak arrival time is frequency dependant RC is at the first displacement; maximum displacement (peak or trough) is delayed by
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L 6 Seismic Reflections

Types of Pulses
Reflection Coefficients

Zero Phase
Not Causal (not real, since there is motion before the wave arrives) Symmetric about RC Peak arrival time is not frequency dependant Maximum peak-to-side lobe ratio RC is at the maximum displacement (peak or trough)

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L 6 Seismic Reflections

Polarity Minimum Phase

Reflection Coefficients

SEG Normal Convention

+ A compression is: Negative # on the tape Displayed as a Trough

SEG = Society of Exploration Geophysics

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L 6 Seismic Reflections

Polarity Zero Phase

Reflection Coefficients

SEG Normal Convention

+ A compression is: Positive # on the tape Displayed as a Peak

SEG = Society of Exploration Geophysics

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L 6 Seismic Reflections

What Causes Reflections?

Any interface between bodies with different acoustic properties Acoustic properties define Impedance (I) , in which I = velocity * density
Shot Receiver

Layer 1 Layer 2

Boundary

Small change in impedance small reflection Large change in impedance large reflection
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L 6 Seismic Reflections

Time for Two Short Exercises 6a. Calculating Some Reflection Coefficients

6b. Calculating Frequency & Wavelength

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L 6 Seismic Reflections

Seismic Interface

Shale

Velocity = 2000 m/s Density = 1.7 gm/cc

Sand

Velocity = 2400 m/s Density = 1.8 gm/cc

I below I above Reflection = Coefficient I below + I above

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L 6 Seismic Reflections

Seismic Interface

Shale

Velocity = 2000 m/s Density = 1.7 gm/cc I = 2000 * 1.7 = 3400 Velocity = 2400 m/s Density = 1.8 gm/cc I = 2400 * 1.8 = 4320

Sand

I below I above Reflection = Coefficient I below + I above

4320 - 3400 4300 + 3400

0.119

Of the incident energy, 12% is reflected, 88% is transmitted

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L 6 Seismic Reflections

Seismic Interface

Shale

Velocity = 2000 m/s Density = 1.7 gm/cc

Carbonate

Velocity = 2600 m/s Density = 2.1 gm/cc

I below I above Reflection = Coefficient I below + I above

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L 6 Seismic Reflections

Seismic Interface

Shale

Velocity = 2000 m/s Density = 1.7 gm/cc I = 2000 * 1.7 = 3400 Velocity = 2600 m/s Density = 2.1 gm/cc I = 2600 * 2.1 = 5460

Carbonate

I below I above Reflection = Coefficient I below + I above

5460 - 3400 5460 + 3400

0.232

Of the incident energy, 23% is reflected, 77% is transmitted

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L 6 Seismic Reflections

Exercise 6b: Frequency & Wavelength

Fapparent = # cycle / time interval Fdominant = (2* Fapparent)/ = Velocity / Fdominant

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L 6 Seismic Reflections

Seismic Data & Stratal Surfaces

Seismic reflections parallel stratal surfaces Reflection terminations mark unconformities Changes in reflection character indicate facies changes
Stratal Surfaces

Unconformities

Facies Changes

Fluvial Incised Valley Fill Lower Shoreface - Offshore Estuarine

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Coastal Plain Slope - Basin Condensed Interval

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Foreshore/Upper Shoreface Submarine Fan

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Why Stratal Surfaces?

Recall: Reflections are generated where there is a change in acoustic properties (I = v) Consider: Where can there be sharp changes in impedance? horizontally as lithofacies change? vertically across stratal boundaries?
Brushy Canyon Formation, West Texas

Very Gradational Lateral Changes in Physical Properties

Can Have Abrupt Vertical Changes in Physical Properties

Especially at PS Boundaries
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L 6 Seismic Reflections

Not Every Reflection is Strata!

There are other seismic reflections out there that may not be stratigraphic in origin
Fluid Contacts Fault Planes Multiples Others

Stratal Surfaces

Unconformities W

Facies Changes

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L 6 Seismic Reflections

Another Exercise 6c. Generating a Modeled Seismic Trace

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L 6 Seismic Reflections

Exercise 6c: A Synthetic Trace

The Pulse 3 Ref. Coeff.

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L 6 Seismic Reflections