Process Layout Example

Arrange six departments in a factory to minimize the material handling costs. Each department is 20 x 20 feet and the building is 60 feet long and 40 feet wide.
1. Construct a from-to matrix

2. Determine the space requirements

3. Develop an initial schematic diagram 4. Determine the cost of this layout

5. Try to improve the layout

6. Prepare a detailed plan

Process Layout Example

Number of loads per week
Department Assembly Painting (1) (2) Assembly (1) Painting (2) Machine Shop (3) Receiving (4) Shipping (5) Testing (6) Machine Receiving Shop (3) (4) Shipping (5) Testing (6)

50

100 30

0 50 20

0 10 0 50

20 0 100 0 0

Figure 4

Process Layout Example

Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Assembly Department (1) Painting Department (2) Machine Shop Department (3) 40 Receiving Department (4) Shipping Department (5) Testing Department (6)

Figure 5

Area 4

Area 5 60

Area 6

Process Layout Example

Interdepartmental Flow Graph
100

50

2 10

30

100

50

5
Figure 6

Process Layout Example

Cost =
Cost = + +
n

Xij Cij

i=1 j=1

$50 + $200 + $40 (1 and 2) (1 and 3) (1 and 6) $30 + $50 + $10 (2 and 3) (2 and 4) (2 and 5) $40 + $100 + $50 (3 and 4) (3 and 6) (4 and 5)

= $570

Process Layout Example

Revised Interdepartmental Flow Graph
30

50

100

50 50

100

5
Figure 7

Process Layout Example

Cost =
Cost = + +
n

Xij Cij

i=1 j=1

$50 + $100 + $20 (1 and 2) (1 and 3) (1 and 6) $60 + $50 + $10 (2 and 3) (2 and 4) (2 and 5) $40 + $100 + $50 (3 and 4) (3 and 6) (4 and 5)

= $480

Process Layout Example

Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Painting Department (2) Assembly Department (1) Machine Shop Department (3) 40 Receiving Department (4) Shipping Department (5) Testing Department (6)

Figure 8

Area 4

Area 5 60

Area 6

Medium Production Quantities

1. Batch production A batch of a given product is produced, and then the facility is changed over to produce another product Changeover takes time setup time Typical layout process layout Hard product variety 2. Cellular manufacturing A mixture of products is made without significant changeover time between products Typical layout cellular layout Soft product variety

Work Cells
Reorganizes people and machines into groups to focus on single products or product groups Group technology identifies products that have similar characteristics for particular cells Volume must justify cells Cells can be reconfigured as designs or volume changes

Advantages of Work Cells

1. Reduced work-in-process inventory 2. Less floor space required 3. Reduced raw material and finished goods inventory 4. Reduced direct labor 5. Heightened sense of employee participation 6. Increased use of equipment and machinery 7. Reduced investment in machinery and equipment

Cellular Layout

Improving Layouts Using Work Cells

Current layout - workers in small closed areas. Cannot increase output without a third worker and third set of equipment.

Improved layout - cross-trained workers can assist each other. May be able to add a third worker as additional output is needed.

Figure 10 (a)

Improving Layouts Using Work Cells

Current layout - straight lines make it hard to balance tasks because work may not be divided evenly

Improved layout - in U shape, workers have better access. Four cross-trained workers were reduced.

Figure 10 (b)

U-shaped line may reduce employee movement and space requirements while enhancing communication, reducing the number of workers, and facilitating inspection

Requirements of Work Cells

1. Identification of families of products 2. A high level of training, flexibility and empowerment of employees 3. Being self-contained, with its own equipment and resources 4. Test (poka-yoke) at each station in the cell

Staffing and Balancing Work Cells

Determine the takt time
Total work time available Takt time = Units required

Determine the number of operators required

Total operation time required Workers required = Takt time

Staffing Work Cells Example

600 Mirrors per day required Mirror production scheduled for 8 hours per day From a work balance chart 60 total operation time 50 = 140 seconds
Standard time required 40 30 20

10
0

Assemble Paint

Test

Operations

Label Pack for shipment

Staffing Work Cells Example

600 Mirrors per day required Mirror production scheduled for 8 hours per day From a work balance chart total operation time = 140 seconds
Takt time = (8 hrs x 60 mins) / 600 units = .8 mins = 48 seconds Total operation time required Workers required = Takt time

= 140 / 48 = 2.91

Work Balance Charts

Used for evaluating operation times in work cells Can help identify bottleneck operations Flexible, cross-trained employees can help address labor bottlenecks Machine bottlenecks may require other approaches

High Production
1. Quantity production Equipment is dedicated to the manufacture of one product Standard machines tooled for high production (e.g., stamping presses, molding machines) Typical layout process layout 2. Flow line production Multiple workstations arranged in sequence Product requires multiple processing or assembly steps Product layout is most common

Repetitive and ProductOriented Layout

Organized around products or families of similar high-volume, low-variety products
1. Volume is adequate for high equipment utilization

2. Product demand is stable enough to justify high investment in specialized equipment

3. Product is standardized or approaching a phase of life cycle that justifies investment 4. Supplies of raw materials and components are adequate and of uniform quality

Product-Oriented Layouts
Fabrication line Builds components on a series of machines Machine-paced Require mechanical or engineering changes to balance Assembly line Puts fabricated parts together at a series of workstations Paced by work tasks Balanced by moving tasks Both types of lines must be balanced so that the time to perform the work at each station is the same

Product-Oriented Layouts
Advantages
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Low variable cost per unit Low material handling costs Reduced work-in-process inventories Easier training and supervision Rapid throughput

Disadvantages
1. High volume is required 2. Work stoppage at any point ties up the whole operation 3. Lack of flexibility in product or production rates

Product Layout

Relationships between Plant Layout and Type of Production Facility

Product/Production Relationships
Total number of product units = Qf = Q j j 1 Product variety Hard product variety = differences between products Soft product variety = differences between models of products Product and part complexity Product complexity np = number of parts in product Part complexity no = number of operations per part
P

Factory Operations Model

Simplified for purposes of conceptualization:
Total number of product units Qf = PQ Total number of parts produced npf = PQnp

Total number of operations nof = PQnpno

Limitations and Capabilities of a Manufacturing Plant

Manufacturing capability - the technical and physical limitations of a manufacturing firm and each of its plants Three dimensions of manufacturing capability: 1. Technological processing capability - the available set of manufacturing processes 2. Physical size and weight of product 3. Production capacity (plant capacity) production quantity that can be made in a given time

Time Spent in Material Handling

Computer Software
Graphical approach only works for small problems Computer programs are available to solve bigger problems Computer Packages are in two domain
Construction Programs
ALDEP CORELAP

Improvement Programs
CRAFT RUGR

PLANET
LAYOP

CRAFT Example
1 2 PATTERN 3 4 5 6

1
1 2 D D

2
D D

PATTERN 3 4 5 D D D D B B

6
B B

1
2 3 4 5 6

A
A D C F E

A
A D C F E

A
A D D F E

A
A D D F E

B
B D D F E

B
B D D D D

3
4 5 6

D
C A A

D
C A A

D
D A A

E
E A F

E
E A F

E
F F F

TOTAL COST 20,100 EST. COST REDUCTION ITERATION 0

.00

TOTAL COST 14,390 EST. COST REDUCTION ITERATION 3

70.
Figure 9

(a)

(b)

Computer Software
Three dimensional visualization software allows managers to view possible layouts and assess process, material handling, efficiency, and safety issues

Flexible Manufacturing System

A Flexible manufacturing system is a system that is able to respond to changed conditions.

Where to Apply FMS Technology

The plant presently either:
Produces parts in batches or Uses manned GT cells and management wants to automate the cells

It must be possible to group a portion of the parts made in the plant into part families
The part similarities allow them to be processed on the FMS workstations

Parts and products are in the mid-volume, midvariety production range

Flexible Manufacturing System Defined

A highly automated GT machine cell, consisting of a group of processing stations (usually CNC machine tools), interconnected by an automated material handling and storage system, and controlled by an integrated computer system The FMS relies on the principles of GT
No manufacturing system can produce an unlimited range of products An FMS is capable of producing a single part family or a limited range of part families

Flexibility Tests in an Automated Manufacturing System

To qualify as being flexible, a manufacturing system should satisfy the following criteria (yes answer for each question):
1. Can it process different part styles in a non-batch mode? 2. Can it accept changes in production schedule? 3. Can it respond gracefully to equipment malfunctions and breakdowns? 4. Can it accommodate introduction of new part designs?

Automated Manufacturing Cell

Automated manufacturing cell with two machine tools and robot. Is it a flexible cell?

Is the Robotic Work Cell Flexible?

1. Part variety test
Can it machine different part configurations in a mix rather than in batches?

2. Schedule change test

Can production schedule and part mix be changed?

Is the Robotic Work Cell Flexible?

3. Error recovery test
Can it operate if one machine breaks down?
Example: while repairs are being made on the broken machine, can its work be temporarily reassigned to the other machine?

4. New part test

As new part designs are developed, can NC part programs be written off-line and then downloaded to the system for execution?

Types of FMS
Kinds of operations
Processing vs. assembly
Type of processing
If machining, rotational vs. non-rotational

Number of machines (workstations):

1. Single machine cell (n = 1)

2. Flexible manufacturing cell (n = 2 or 3)

3. Flexible manufacturing system (n = 4 or more)

Single-Machine Manufacturing Cell

A single-machine CNC machining cell

Flexible Manufacturing Cell

A two-machine flexible manufacturing cell for machining

A five-machine flexible manufacturing system for machining

Features of the Three Categories

FMS Types Level of Flexibility

1. Dedicated FMS
Designed to produce a limited variety of part styles The complete universe of parts to be made on the system is known in advance Part family likely based on product commonality rather than geometric similarity

2. Random-order FMS
Appropriate for large part families New part designs will be introduced Production schedule is subject to daily changes

Dedicated vs. Random-Order FMSs

FMS Components
1. Workstations 2. Material handling and storage system 3. Computer control system

4. Human labor

Workstations
Load and unload station(s)
Factory interface with FMS Manual or automated Includes communication interface with worker to specify parts to load, fixtures needed, etc.

CNC machine tools in a machining type system

CNC machining centers Milling machine modules Turning modules

Assembly machines

Material Handling and Storage

Functions:
Random, independent movement of parts between stations Capability to handle a variety of part styles
Standard pallet fixture base Workholding fixture can be adapted

Temporary storage Convenient access for loading and unloading Compatibility with computer control

Material Handling Equipment

Primary handling system establishes basic FMS layout Secondary handling system - functions:
Transfers work from primary handling system to workstations Position and locate part with sufficient accuracy and repeatability for the operation Reorient part to present correct surface for processing Buffer storage to maximize machine utilization

Five Types of FMS Layouts

The layout of the FMS is established by the material handling system Five basic types of FMS layouts
1. In-line 2. Loop 3. Ladder

4. Open field
5. Robot-centered cell

FMS In-Line Layout

Straight line flow, well-defined processing sequence similar for all work units Work flow is from left to right through the same workstations No secondary handling system

FMS In-Line Layout

Linear transfer system with secondary parts handling system at each workstation to facilitate flow in two directions

FMS Loop Layout

One direction flow, but variations in processing sequence possible for different part types Secondary handling system at each workstation

FMS Rectangular Layout

Rectangular layout allows recirculation of pallets back to the first station in the sequence after unloading at the final station

FMS Ladder Layout

Loop with rungs to allow greater variation in processing sequence

FMS Open Field Layout

Multiple loops and ladders, suitable for large part families

Robot-Centered Cell
Suited to the handling of rotational parts and turning operations

FMS Computer Functions

1. Workstation control
Individual stations require controls, usually computerized

2. Distribution of control instructions to workstations

Central intelligence required to coordinate processing at individual stations

3. Production control
Product mix, machine scheduling, and other planning functions

FMS Computer Functions

4. Traffic control
Management of the primary handling system to move parts between workstations

5. Shuttle control
Coordination of secondary handling system with primary handling system

6. Workpiece monitoring
Monitoring the status of each part in the system

FMS Computer Functions

7. Tool control
Tool location
Keeping track of each tool in the system Monitoring usage of each cutting tool and determining when to replace worn tools

Tool life monitoring

8. Performance monitoring and reporting

Availability, utilization, production piece counts, etc.

9. Diagnostics
Diagnose malfunction causes and recommend repairs

Duties Performed by Human Labor

Loading and unloading parts from the system
Changing and setting cutting tools

Maintenance and repair of equipment

NC part programming Programming and operating the computer system Overall management of the system

FMS Applications
Machining most common application of FMS technology Assembly

Inspection
Sheet metal processing (punching, shearing, bending, and forming)

Forging

FMS at Chance-Vought Aircraft

(courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron)

FMS for Sheet Metal Fabrication

FMS Benefits
Increased machine utilization
Reasons:
24 hour operation likely to justify investment Automatic tool changing Automatic pallet changing at stations Queues of parts at stations to maximize utilization Dynamic scheduling of production to account for changes in demand

Fewer machines required Reduction in factory floor space required

FMS Benefits
Greater responsiveness to change Reduced inventory requirements
Different parts produced continuously rather than in batches

Lower manufacturing lead times Reduced labor requirements Higher productivity Opportunity for unattended production
Machines run overnight ("lights out operation")

FMS Planning and Design Issues

Part family considerations
Defining the part family of families to be processed
Based on part similarity Based on product commonality

Processing requirements
Determine types of processing equipment required

Physical characteristics of workparts

Size and weight determine size of processing equipment and material handling equipment

FMS Planning and Design Issues

Production volume
Annual quantities determined number of machines required

Types of workstations Variations in process routings Work-in-process and storage capacity Tooling Pallet fixtures

FMS Operational Issues

Scheduling and dispatching
Launching parts into the system at appropriate times

Machine loading
Deciding what operations and associated tooling at each workstation

Part routing
Selecting routes to be followed by each part

FMS Operational Issues

Part grouping
Which parts should be on the system at one time

Tool management
When to change tools

Pallet and fixture allocation

Limits on fixture types may limit part types that can be processed

Just-In-Time Production
Production and delivery of exactly the required number of each component to the downstream operation in the manufacturing sequence just at the moment when the component is needed Minimizes:
Work-in-process
Manufacturing lead time

Requisites for JIT

1. A pull system of production control 2. Setup time reduction for smaller batch sizes

3. Stable and reliable production operations

A system in which the order to make and deliver parts at each workstation in the production sequence comes from the downstream station that uses those parts JIT is based on a pull system of production control Alternative is a push system in which parts are produced at each station irrespective of the immediate need for those parts at the downstream station

Pull System of Production Control

Setup Time Reduction

Starting point in setup time reduction is recognition that the work elements in setup are of two types:
1. Internal elements can only be done while the production machine is stopped 2. External elements do not require the machine to be stopped

External Work Elements

Can be accomplished while previous job is still running Strategy:
Design the setup tooling and plan the changeover procedure to permit as much of the setup as possible to consist of external elements

Examples:
Retrieve tooling for next job from tool crib Assemble tools for next job Reprogram machine for next job

Internal Work Elements

Use time & motion study and methods improvement to minimize the sum of the internal work element times Use two workers rather than one to accomplish the changeover Eliminate adjustments in the setup Use quick-acting fasteners rather than bolts and nuts Use U-shaped washers instead of O-shaped washers Design modular fixtures consisting of a base plus insert tooling that can be quickly changed for each new part style
Base part remains attached to production machine

Stable and Reliable Production Operations

Production leveling - distribute changes in product mix and quantity as evenly as possible over time On-time delivery of components Defect-free components and materials Reliable production equipment Workforce that is cooperative, committed, and cross-trained Dependable supplier base

JIT Impact on Facilities

Reduction of Inventories
Deliveries to points of use Quality at Source Better communication, line balancing and multifunctional workers.

McDonalds Assembly Line

Figure 12

Disassembly Lines
Disassembly is being considered in new product designs

Green issues and recycling standards are important consideration

Automotive disassembly is the 16th largest industry in the US

Assembly-Line Balancing
Objective is to minimize the imbalance between machines or personnel while meeting required output Starts with the precedence relationships
1. Determine cycle time 2. Calculate theoretical minimum number of workstations

3. Balance the line by assigning specific tasks to workstations

Wing Component Example

Performance Time Task (minutes) A 10 B 11 C 5 D 4 E 12 F 3 G 7 H 11 I 3 Total time 66 Task Must Follow Task Listed Below A B B A C, D F E G, H
This means that tasks B and E cannot be done until task A has been completed

Wing Component Example

Performance Time Task (minutes) A 10 B 11 C 5 D 4 E 12 F 3 G 7 H 11 I 3 Total time 66 Task Must Follow Task Listed Below A B B A C, D F E G, H

10

11

B
4

G
3

12

11

H
Figure 13

Wing Component Example

Performance Time Task (minutes) A 10 B 11 C 5 D 4 E 12 F 3 G 7 H 11 I 3 Total time 66 Task Must Follow Task Listed Below 480 available mins per day 40 units required

workstations

A Production time B available per day Cycle B time = Units required per day A = 480 / 40 5 C, D = 12 minutes per unit C F 10 11 3 7 n E for taskF i A Time B G Minimum G, H i=1 4 number of =
Cycle D time
12 11

= 66 / 12 E H = 5.5 or 6 stations
Figure 13

WingLine-Balancing Component Example Heuristics

1. Longest task time Choose the available 480 task available Performance Task Must Follow with the longest task time mins per day Time Task Listed Task (minutes) 40 task units required 2. Most following tasksBelow Choose the available with the largestCycle number of= 12 mins A 10 time following tasks B 11 A Minimum = 5.5 or 6 C 3. Ranked 5 positional B workstations Choose the available task for D B weight4 which the sum of following E 12 A task times is the longest 5 F 3 C, D Choose the available C task G 4. Shortest 7 task time F 10 shortest 11 3 7 with the task time H 11 E A B G F I 5. Least number 3 G, H of Choose the available 4 task 3 following with the least number of Total time 66 tasks D I 12 11 following tasks
E

H Table 4
Figure 13

Wing Component Example

Performance Time Task (minutes) A 10 B 11 Station C 5 2 D 4 11 E 10 12 F A B 3 G 7 H 11 I 3 12 Station Total time 66 E 1
Station 4

Task Must Follow Task Listed Below A 5 B C B A C, D 4 F D E G, H

480 available mins per day 40 units required Cycle time = 12 mins Minimum workstations = 5.5 or 6
3 7

F
Station 3

I
11
Station 6

H
Station 5 Figure 14

Wing Component Example

Performance Time Task (minutes) Task Must Follow Task Listed Below 480 available mins per day 40 units required

A 10 Cycle time = 12 mins B 11 A Minimum C 5 B workstations = 5.5 or 6 D 4 B E 12 A F 3 C, D Task times G 7 F Efficiency = (Actual number of H 11 Eworkstations) x (Largest cycle time) I 3 G, H = 66 minutes / (6 stations) x (12 minutes) Total time 66 = 91.7%