Southern Methodist University

Bobby B. Lyle School of Engineering

CEE 2342/ME 2342 Fluid Mechanics
Roger O. Dickey, Ph.D., P.E.

I. INTRODUCTION
B. Physical Characteristics of Fluids
C. The Science of Fluid Mechanics
D. Units and Dimensions
E. Fluid Properties
Reading Assignment:
Chapter 1, following along with daily lecture
material.
B. Physical Characteristics of Fluids
In engineering applications, matter exists in one
of three physical states:
Solid
Liquid
Gas
The term fluid encompasses both liquids and
gases.
Fluids
Qualitative characteristics of a solid:
Essentially has constant volume
Maintains a fixed shape
Molecules are held in a more less rigid
structure
Qualitative characteristics of a liquid:
Molecules are relatively free to change
their positions with respect to each other
but they are restricted by cohesive forces
to a practically constant volume
Assumes the shape of a container
Qualitative characteristics of a gas:
Molecules are unrestricted by cohesive
forces
Has no definite volume
Expands to fill a container
Definitions of shear force/shear stress and
normal force/normal stress (pressure):
(i) A shear force on a surface is the
component of the total applied force that is
tangent to the surface. Shear stress is the
shear force per unit area of the surface.
(ii) A normal force on a surface is the
component of the total applied force that is
perpendicular to the surface. Normal stress
or pressure is the normal force per unit
area of the surface.
Consider a solid subjected to shear forces,
Initial solid shape in static
equilibrium
Apply shear force
Deformation of the solid takes
place until internal forces
(spring-like forces due to
molecular cohesion) build up
to resist further deformation
resulting in a deformed solid
shape in static equilibrium
A fluid can be defined as follows:
Fluid a substance that continuously deforms
(i.e., flows) under the action of a shear stress.
Consider a fluid element subjected to shear forces,
Initial fluid element shape in
static equilibrium
Apply shear force
Continuous deformation
occurs until the shear stress
is removed
Fluid as a Continuum -
It is virtually impossible to evaluate the forces
acting on, and the behavior of individual
molecules when studying the behavior of fluids
because the number of molecules in a tiny
volume is astronomical (approximately 10
21

molecules/mm
3
for liquids and 10
18

molecules/mm
3
for gases).
In the fluid sciences, behavior of fluids is
characterized by considering the average, or
macroscopic value of physical quantities of
interest where the average is taken for an
extremely large number of molecules. These
macroscopic fluid properties can be perceived
by human senses, and measured by instruments.
In essence, the derivation and application of the
basic principles of fluid mechanics requires that
the actual molecular structure of fluids be
replaced by a hypothetical continuous medium
called the continuum.
C. The Science of Fluid Mechanics
The sub-disciplines of the science of fluid
mechanics are summarized on the following
flow chart:
Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Dynamics
(Flow of Fluids)
Fluid Statics
(Fluids at Rest)
Hydrodynamics
(Incompressible
Flow - liquids
and low speed
flow of gases)
Gas Dynamics
(Compressible
Flow - gases)
Aerodynamics
Hydraulics
(Flow of Liquids in
Pipes and Channels)
Examples of the practical importance of fluid
mechanics:
(1) Hydrology
Flow of groundwater
Flow of water in streams and lakes
Ocean currents and tides
Weather (flow of air in the atmosphere)
(2) Closed Conduit Flow
Water supply transmission pipelines
Water distribution networks
Cold and hot water plumbing for buildings
Oil and gas pipelines
Air and oxygen distribution piping (e.g., in
waste treatment systems, hospitals, etc.)
Blood flow in human circulatory system
(3) Open Channel Flow
Storm sewer networks and channels
Sanitary sewer networks
Wastewater plumbing in buildings (e.g.,
industrial wastewater and sewage
collection networks)
Irrigation networks
(4) Turbomachinery
Turbines (power generation)
Pumps
Compressors and blowers
(5) Aerodynamics
Airframe design (lift and drag)
Propulsion systems (propellers, jet engines,
rocket engines)
(6) Naval Architecture design of boats and
ships
Consider the example of an automobile:
Pneumatic tires
Gasoline and engine coolant pumped
through closed conduits
Hydraulic shock absorbers
Hydraulic brakes
Aerodynamic body shapes increase fuel
efficiency by reducing drag
Interest in fluid behavior dates back to ancient
civilizations based on the necessity for
development of water supply and irrigation
systems, design of boats and ships, and
propelling projectiles through the air (e.g., the
addition of feathers at the tail of an arrow,
creating drag to true the flight of the arrow).
The beginnings of the formalization of the
science of fluid mechanics began with the need
to control water in large irrigation systems in
ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia (Iraq), and India as
early as 3000 BC.
However, the first quantitative scientific laws in
the field of fluid mechanics were not developed
until 250 BC when the Greek scientist,
mathematician, and inventor Archimedes
discovered and recorded the principles of
hydrostatics and flotation.
The fundamental principles of hydrodynamics
were not set forth until the 17
th
and 18
th
centuries
with the greatest contributions made by Isaac
Newton, Daniel Bernoulli, and Leonhard Euler.
Refer to Table 1.9, pp. 28-29, in the textbook
for a chronological listing of some major
contributors to the science of fluid mechanics, an
excerpt is shown on the following two slides:
Table 1.9,
pp. 28-29
Table 1.9
(Continued)
D. Units and Dimensions
Both SI and British Gravitational (BG), also called
U.S. Customary (USC), units are used:

Physical Units
Quantity Dimension SI USC
Force F N lb
Mass M kg slug
Length L m ft
Time T sec sec
A consistent set of physical units involves
either: (1) defining the units of F-L-T as the
basic units, then deriving the unit of M from
Newtons Second Law of Motion (F = ma), or
(2) defining the units of M-L-T, and deriving
the unit of F from Newtons Second Law.
Using SI units, M-L-T units are defined, and the
unit of F is derived:
2
2
sec
m kg
1 N 1
) m/sec kg)(1 (1 N 1
ma F

=
=
=
1 N is derived as the force
required to accelerate a
1 kg mass at 1 m/sec
2
SI Force Dimensions:
| |
2
2
or
-
MLT
T
L M
(

Using USC units, F-L-T units are usually
defined, and the unit of M is derived:
ft
sec lb
1 slug 1
ft/sec 1
lb 1
slug 1
a
F
m
2
2

=
=
=
1 slug is derived as the mass
accelerated at 1 ft/sec
2
by a
force of 1 lb

USC Mass Dimensions:
| |
1 2
2
or
-
L FT
L
T F
(
(

Reconsider the derived unit of force in the SI
system of units,


Multiply both sides of this equation by 1 sec
2
,
2
sec
m kg
1 N 1

=
m kg 1 sec N 1
2
=
Divide both sides of the equation by 1 m and
rearrange,
m
sec N
1 kg 1
2

=
These are the same physical
dimensions derived for slugs,
the unit of mass in the USC
system of units:
| |
1 2
2
or
-
L FT
L
T F
(
(

A comprehensive listing of dimensions for
common physical quantities encountered in
science and engineering is shown in Table 1.1
Dimensions Associated with Common
Physical Quantities, p. 5 in the textbook:
Table 1.1 (Continued)
Table 1.1 (Continued)
Homework No. 1 Dimensional consistency of
mathematical expressions describing fluid
phenomena.
E. Fluid Properties
Properties vary from fluid-to-fluid. Properties for
a given fluid frequently vary with temperature.
Refer to Tables 1.5 and 1.6, inside the front
cover of the textbook, as shown on the
following two slides:
Measures of Mass and Weight
(1) Specific Weight, ,
weight per unit volume
SI Units - N/m
3
USC Units - lb/ft
3
(

3
L
F
(2) Density, ,
mass per unit volume
SI Units - kg/m
3
USC Units - slug/ft
3
(

3
L
M
(3) Relationship Between and ,
Weight and mass are related by Newtons
Second Law,
F = ma
Weight, w, is the gravitational force exerted on
a body of mass, m, by the earth and thus,
w = mg
where, g = gravitational acceleration
Divide both sides of the previous equation by
the volume, , of the body of weight w and
mass m yields,


By definition,
g
V
m
V
w
=
V
m
and
V
w

V
Substituting,


Standard gravitational acceleration at mean sea
level (MSL) is,
g = 9.81 m/sec
2
g = 32.2 ft/sec
2

g =
[Equation (1.6), p. 12]
(4) Specific Gravity, S,
S ratio of the density of a fluid to
the density of water at 4 C
S is dimensionless (one of many dimensionless
ratios encountered in fluid mechanics) and, thus,
the numerical value of S does not depend on the
system of units.
Viscosity
Contrary to the case of solid bodies, specific
weight and density are insufficient to uniquely
characterize the dynamic behavior of fluids
when acted upon by external forces. For
example, two fluids with similar density, such
as certain oils and water, can behave quite
differently when flowing.
There is need for an additional physical
property to describe the fluidity of gases and
liquids. This property is called viscosity.
Viscosity is the fluid property that offers
resistance to shear stresses.
Film Clip Textbook film, Segment V1.3:
Viscous Fluids.
Isaac Newton made pioneering experimental
observations of fluids upon which shear forces
were applied. He discovered that the resulting
velocity gradient created within the fluid was
directly proportional to the applied shear stress.
His discovery is called Newtons Law of
Viscosity, and for one-dimensional flow in the
x-direction it is written as,



where,
dy
du
t =
[Equation (1.9), p. 15]
t = shear stress applied to the fluid [F/L
2
]
u = velocity in the x-direction [L/T]
y = distance along the y-axis [L]
(i.e., distance above the x-axis)
= velocity gradient perpendicular to the
direction of flow
= viscosity
dy
du
(

L
T L
| |
2
2
or

FTL
L
T F
is given the name viscosity but is also called the
absolute viscosity or dynamic viscosity. Typical
units are,
SI Units (no special name)

USC Units (no special name)

c-g-s (named Poise, P)
2
m
sec N
2
ft
sec lb
2
cm
sec dyne
Consider an experiment where a fluid film of
thickness b is located between a moving top
plate having velocity U in the +x-direction, and
a parallel but fixed bottom plate as shown in
Figure 1.5, p. 15 in the textbook, slightly
modified on the following slide:
Figure 1.5, p. 15 Modified
b
U
dy
du
=
x
1
The constant velocity of the top plate, U, is
induced by applying a constant horizontal force,
P, to the plate. For a plate having planar area A,
the shear stress t (i.e., force per unit area)
applied to the fluid by the top plate is simply:
(

=
2

L
F
A
P
t
The fluid between the plates deforms continuously
under the action of the shear stress, t. The fluid
motion may be conceptualized as many thin
horizontal layers sliding one over another at
differing rates yielding a velocity gradient ,
which is also the rate of angular deformation of
the fluid as illustrated in Figure 1.5. Hence, is
sometimes called the rate of shearing strain.
dy
du
dy
du
Experimental observations reveal that fluids
stick to solid boundaries due to molecular
adhesion forces. Thus, fluid particles in direct
contact with moving solid boundaries move with
the same velocity as the solid surface, and fluid
particles contacting stationary solid boundaries
have zero velocity. This is called the no-slip
condition for flowing fluids.
Film Clip Textbook film, Segment V1.4:
No-Slip Condition.
Experimental observations for the geometry of the
current experiment reveal that the fluid velocity u
increases linearly when proceeding upward in the
+y-direction, hence is constant, i.e.,
The no-slip condition establishes the boundary
conditions: (i) u = 0, y = 0 at the bottom plate, and
(ii) u = U, y = b at the top plate. Thus,
b
U
dy
du
b
U
dy
du
=

=
0
0
dy
du
y
u
A
A
=
dy
du
Viscosity is also a constant, i.e., a characteristic
physical property of the specific fluid used in the
experiment. Therefore, according to Newtons Law
of Viscosity, , the shear stress must
remain constant throughout the fluid, ,
being transmitted from one sliding fluid layer to the
next.
b
U
t =
dy
du
t =
Most fluids adhere to Newtons Law of Viscosity
shear stress varying as a linear function of
velocity gradient and having viscosity, , as the
constant of proportionality. These fluids are
termed Newtonian fluids. Fluids that do not
adhere to the law are classed as non-Newtonian
fluids. Figure 1.7, p. 16 in the textbook
graphically compares Newtonian and several
common classes of non-Newtonian fluids:
Figure 1.7, p. 16
Modified

1
Film Clip Textbook film, Segment V1.6: Non-
Newtonian Behavior Shear-Thickening
It is sometimes convenient in fluid mechanics to
use the kinematic viscosity, u, which is defined
as the viscosity divided by the density of the
fluid:
(

M
T L F
L M
L T F
3
2

u
From Newtons Second Law of Motion, force has
equivalent dimensions of which yields the
common dimensions for kinematic viscosity, ,
that is:
(
(

T
L
2
(

2
T
L M
( )
(

T
L
M
T L T L M
M
T L F
2 2
Common units for kinematic viscosity are,
SI Units - m
2
/sec (no special name)
USC Units - ft
2
/sec (no special name)
c-g-s - cm
2
/sec (named Stoke, St)
Viscosity does not vary significantly with pressure
and, as such, is assumed solely a function of
temperature. Figure 1.8, p. 17 in the textbook is
reproduced on the following slide, showing that:
(i) Liquids viscosity decreases dramatically with
increasing temperature
(ii) Gases viscosity increases slightly with
increasing temperature
(iii) Viscosities for common liquids are several
orders of magnitude higher than those of
gases.
Figure 1.8,
p. 17
D
y
n
a
m
i
c

V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y
,

(
N

s
/
m
2
)

Temperature, C
Homework No. 2 Newtons Law of Viscosity.
Vapor Pressure
Vapor pressure, p
v
, is defined as,
p
v
the absolute pressure at which a
liquid will boil at a given temperature
Vapor pressure increases as the temperature of
the liquid increases, refer to Handout I.E.
Properties of Common Fluids. A liquid can be
made to boil at low temperature by reducing the
pressure.
In many common liquid flow situations (e.g., in
some hydraulic machinery such as pumps and
turbines, inside valves, and along the face of
dam spillways) pressures at or below the vapor
pressure of the liquid can occur. Under these
conditions, the liquid flashes to vapor forming
tiny bubbles or gas pockets.
As the bubbles are carried along by the flow,
they can enter zones of higher pressure where
the vapor condenses and the bubbles collapse.
As the liquid rushes into the vacuum left by the
collapsed bubble, high transient forces are
generated (like tiny hammer blows).
Where the collapsing bubbles are in contact with
solid boundaries these hammer blows can
cause pitting and erosion of the solid surface.
The phenomena of vapor pocket formation and
collapse is called cavitation.
Cavitation
Worker inspecting
cavitation damage
to spillway
Cavitation
Glen Canyon
Dam Spillway
near Page, AZ
Workers repairing
cavitation damage to
dam spillway
Cavitation
Dworshak Dam
Spillway near
Ashaka, Idaho
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity, E
v
, often simply
called the Bulk Modulus, is a measure of the
elasticity of a liquid.
Let,
= volume of liquid [L
3
]
p = pressure [F/L
2
]
V
Then,
v
E
V
dp
V d
=
Rate of change of
volume with respect
to pressure
The minus sign
indicates that volume
decreases with
increasing pressure
Rearranging yields,



SI Units - N/m
2
(called the Pascal)
USC Units - lb/ft
2
which is frequently
converted to lb/in
2
or psi
(

=
2

L
F
V V d
dp
E
v
Pressure
Dimensions
[Equation (1.12), p. 20]
Since a decrease in volume (i.e., ) for a
given mass, , causes an increase in
density (i.e., d > 0), the previous equation may
also be written:
(

+ =
2

L
F
d
dp
E
v

Pressure
Dimensions
[Equation (1.13), p. 20]
0 < V d
V m =
Values of E
v
tend to be very large for common
liquids, e.g., approximately 300,000 psi for
water. For other examples refer to Handout
I.E. Properties of Common Fluids,
emphasizing that liquids can be assumed
incompressible for the vast majority of applied
fluid mechanics problems.
However, there are a few engineering
applications involving extremely large pressure
changes where it becomes necessary to consider
the compressibility of liquids:
Water hammer rapid valve closure can
cause large pressure transients that
generate loud bangs, shaking, and even
rupture of piping.
Pumping of groundwater from deep
confined aquifers.
Valve Closure Water Hammer
Water Hammer
Damage
Water Hammer Shock Alleviation
Wells in Confined
Aquifers
Surface Tension
At interfaces between liquids and gases,
between two immiscible liquids, and between
liquids and solids unbalanced cohesive forces
develop that cause the liquid surface to appear
and behave as if it were a skin or membrane
stretched over the fluid mass.
Consider a liquid-gas interface, e.g., the
interface between water in a drinking glass and
the surrounding air. Molecules within the
interior of the liquid mass experience balanced
cohesive forces because they are surrounded by
like molecules that are attracted to each other
equally.
Conversely, liquid molecules residing at the liquid-
gas interface are subjected to a net force toward the
interior of the liquid mass because the cohesive
forces between liquid molecules are much stronger
than the adhesive forces between the liquid
molecules and the overlying gas. The unbalanced
cohesive forces along the interface create the
appearance of a taut skin over the liquid surface.
A tensile force acts in the plane of the surface
skin, along any line in the surface, much like
the tensile force in a drum head. The intensity of
the tensile force per unit length is called surface
tension, [F/L].
Surface tension is a characteristic property of a
given liquid, as illustrated in Handout I.E.
Properties of Common Fluids for various
liquids in contact with air (e.g., 0.466 N/m for
mercury compared to 0.022 N/m for gasoline).
However, surface tension also depends on the
other substanceliquid, gas, or solidforming
the interface with the liquid. Furthermore,
surface tension varies with temperature, tending
to decrease with increasing temperature.
Surface tension forces are usually negligible
compared to inertial and viscous shear forces in
flowing fluids. However, there are a number of
interesting and/or important phenomena involving
surface tension:
Steel needles, razor blades, and water
walking insects can float on water under the
right conditions, because the tensile force in
the taut skin balances their weight.
Liquids can form tight, compact droplets
when placed on smooth solid surfaces.
Film Clip Textbook film, Segment V1.9:
Floating Razor Blade.
Water Strider Insect Mercury Droplets
Formation of liquid droplets and gas bubbles,
e.g., break up of liquid jets into discrete
droplets through fuel injectors and atomizing
spray nozzles, and diffusing compressed air
into aeration tanks.
Formation of a meniscus and the associated
capillary rise (wetting liquids) or fall (non-
wetting liquids) in small diameter tubes;
involves liquid-gas-solid interfaces
Atomizing Spray Nozzles Fuel Injectors
Ceramic Disk,
Fine Bubble
Air Diffuser
Figure 1.10, p. 25
Effect of capillary action in small tubes. (a) Rise of column for
a liquid that wets the tube, e.g., water in a glass tube. (b) Free-
body diagram for calculating column height. (c) Depression of
column for a non-wetting liquid, e.g., mercury in a glass tube.
Formation of a capillary fringe above ground
water aquifers, where the tiny interstitial
spaces between soil grains (soil porosity)
create natural capillary tubes.
Refer to Handout I.E. Surface Tension
Examples Problems.
Homework No. 3 Surface tension.