BIO 150 Metabolism and Cell Division CELL REPRODUCTION (Cell Division)

Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material

Genome-the entire organisms hereditary information. A genome can consist of a single DNA molecule (common in prokaryotic cells) or a number of DNA molecules (common in eukaryotic cells) DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into chromosomes

 Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each cell nucleus Somatic cells (non-reproductive cells) have two sets of chromosomes Gametes (reproductive cells: sperm and eggs) have half as many chromosomes as somatic cells

Distribution of Chromosomes During Eukaryotic Cell Division

In preparation for cell division, DNA is replicated and the chromosomes condense Each duplicated chromosome has two sister chromatids (joined copies of the original chromosome), which separate during cell division The centromere is the narrow waist of the duplicated chromosome, where the two chromatids are most closely attached

 During cell division, the two sister chromatids of each duplicated chromosome separate and move into two nuclei

Figure 12.5-3

Chromosomes 1 Centromere

Chromosomal DNA molecules

Chromosome arm Chromosome duplication (including DNA replication) and condensation 2

Sister chromatids Separation of sister chromatids into two chromosomes 3

 Eukaryotic cell (somatic cells) division consists of

Mitosis, the division of the genetic material in the nucleus Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm

Gametes are produced by a variation of cell division called meiosis

Mitosis
Single cell splits into two identical daughter cells, each with an exact copy of the original parent cell. Most of the cell in human body is having this type of reproduction. E.g: stomach cells & skin cells do not live very long and constantly have to be replaced with new cells by mitosis.

Meiosis
Meiosis yields non-identical daughter cells that have only one set of chromosomes, half as many as the parent cell During fertilization in animal, the gamete cell from female called an egg, combines with a gamete cell from the male organisms called a sperm to form new cell. The daughter cell have a unique gene assortment coming from the combination from both of the parent cell. Further cell reproduction occurs by mitosis.

Phases of the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle consists of
Interphase (cell growth and copying of chromosomes in preparation for cell division)90% of the cycle G1 phase (first gap) S phase (synthesis) G3 phase (second gap)

Mitotic (M) phase (mitosis and cytokinesis)shortest part of cell cycle-less than 1h

Interphase
The cell grows during all three phases, but chromosomes are duplicated only during the S phase. During interphase the cell is not dividing. The cell gets nutrients from its surrounding, grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles, duplicates its chromosomes and prepares for cell division.

Figure 12.6

the cell acquires or synthesizes the materials needed for cell division. When the cell grows to right size G1 and receives necessary signal its entering to the S phase

INTERPHASE
involve DNA synthesis or DNA replication.

S (DNA synthesis)

G2
the cell completes its growth before leaving the interphase.

Mitotic cell division

Consists of mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis nuclear division Cytokinesis cytoplasmic division The entire process takes about an hour and followed by interphase of the daughter cells. It is a continuous process and no breaks between one stage and the next.

The Mitotic Spindle: A Closer Look

The mitotic spindlestructure made of microtubules, controls chromosome movement during mitosis In animal cells, assembly of spindle microtubules begins in the centrosome, the microtubule organizing center

 The centrosome replicates during interphase, forming two centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of the cell during prophase and prometaphase An aster (a radial array of short microtubules) extends from each centrosome The spindle includes the centrosomes, the spindle microtubules, and the asters

 During prometaphase, some spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of chromosomes and begin to move the chromosomes Kinetochores are protein complexes associated with centromeres At metaphase, the chromosomes are all lined up at the metaphase plate, an imaginary structure at the midway point between the spindles two poles

Figure 12.8

Aster Sister chromatids

Centrosome Metaphase plate (imaginary)

Microtubules

Chromosomes Kinetochores

Centrosome
1 m

Overlapping nonkinetochore microtubules Kinetochore microtubules

0.5 m

 In anaphase, sister chromatids separate and move along the kinetochore microtubules toward opposite ends of the cell The microtubules shorten by depolymerizing at their kinetochore ends

Figure 12.9

EXPERIMENT Kinetochore Spindle pole

Mark

RESULTS

CONCLUSION Chromosome movement Kinetochore Tubulin subunits

Microtubule

Motor protein
Chromosome

 Nonkinetochore microtubules from opposite poles overlap and push against each other, elongating the cell In telophase, genetically identical daughter nuclei form at opposite ends of the cell Cytokinesis begins during anaphase or telophase and the spindle eventually disassembles

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 Mitosis is conventionally divided into five phases

Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

Cytokinesis overlaps the latter stages of mitosis

Prophase
In prophase, the cell begins the process of division. 1. Chromatin condense into discrete chromosomes. Nucleoli disappear. 2. Duplicated chromosomes appear as sister chromatid joined at centromeres by cohesins. 3. Mitotic spindle begin to form. 4. Centrosomes move away from each other by lengthening microtubules between them.

Prometaphase
1. Nuclear envelope fragments 2. Microtubules invade nuclear area. 3. Chromosome more condense. 4. Each chromatids have kinetochores. 5. Non kinetochores microtubules interacting with those from opposite pole.

Metaphase
1. Metaphase is where the chromosomes are lined up on the metaphase plate or equator of the cell. 2. Centrosomes at opposite ends. 3. Kinetochores of sister chromatids attached to kinetochore microtubules from opposite poles.

Anaphase
1. In anaphase, the sister chromatid divide. 2. Kinetochores microtubules shorten moving the chromosomes toward opposite ends. 3. Non kinetochores microtubules lengthen-cell elongates 4. At the end of anaphase, two ends of cell have equivalent chromosomes.

Telophase
1. Two daughter nuclei form in the cell 2. Nuclear envelop arise from the fragments. 3. Nucleoli reappear, chromosome less condense 4. Spindle microtubules depolymerized. 5. Division of one nuclei into two genetically identical nuclei is complete.

Cytokinesis
Once the cell has completed the four stages of mitosis, the cell now separates its cytoplasm and forms two new daughter cells. After cytokinesis is completed, two new daughter are formed which are identical to the parent cell. At this point cell division is complete. In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a process known as cleavage, forming a cleavage furrow In plant cells, a cell plate forms during cytokinesis

Figure 12.10

(a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM)

(b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (TEM)

100 m Cleavage furrow

Vesicles forming cell plate

Wall of parent cell

Cell plate

1 m New cell wall

Contractile ring of microfilaments

Daughter cells Daughter cells

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)

Triploid (3n)

Tetraploid (4n)

Figure 12.11

Nucleus

Chromatin condensing Chromosomes Cell plate 10 m

Nucleolus

1 Prophase

2 Prometaphase 3 Metaphase

4 Anaphase

5 Telophase

The essential principle underlying mitosis

Daughter cells receive precisely the same number and types of chromosomes as the original parent cell The chromosomes of parent cell replicate before the cell divide so it contain twice its normal number of chromosomes. The arrangement of the chromosomes on the metaphase plate ensures the chromosomes are equally divided.

The importance of Mitosis

Cells which go through the process of mitosis divide to produce two new cells This allows an organism to:
Grow Produce new cell through asexual reproduction Regenerate (repair) damaged tissues or body parts Replace malfunctioning cells Replace dead cells

Recall Chap 1 & 2

Sum up the amount of energy in the form of ATP from a single glucose molecule that go through glycolysis, formation of acetyl coA, Krebs cycle and ETC. Draw labeled diagram and describe the induced-fit model of enzyme-substrate interactions.

Overview: Variations on a Theme

Living organisms are distinguished by their ability to reproduce their own kind Genetics is the scientific study of heredity and variation Heredity is the transmission of traits from one generation to the next Variation is demonstrated by the differences in appearance that offspring show from parents and siblings

Figure 13.1

Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes

In a literal sense, children do not inherit particular physical traits from their parents It is genes that are actually inherited

Inheritance of Genes
Genes are the units of heredity, and are made up of segments of DNA Genes are passed to the next generation via reproductive cells called gametes (sperm and eggs) Each gene has a specific location called a locus on a certain chromosome Most DNA is packaged into chromosomes

Comparison of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

In asexual reproduction, a single individual passes genes to its offspring without the fusion of gametes A clone is a group of genetically identical individuals from the same parent In sexual reproduction, two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the two parents

Figure 13.2

0.5 mm

Parent Bud

(a) Hydra

(b) Redwoods

Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells

Human somatic cells (any cell other than a gamete) have 23 pairs of chromosomes The two chromosomes in each pair are called homologous chromosomes, or homologs. Chromosomes in a homologous pair are the same length and shape and carry genes controlling the same inherited characters

 The sex chromosomes, which determine the sex of the individual, are called X and Y Human females have a homologous pair of X chromosomes (XX) Human males have one X and one Y chromosome The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes

 Each pair of homologous chromosomes includes one chromosome from each parent The 46 chromosomes in a human somatic cell are two sets of 23: one from the mother and one from the father A diploid cell (2n) has two sets of chromosomes For humans, the diploid number is 46 (2n = 46)

 A gamete cell (sperm or egg) contains a single set of chromosomes, and is haploid (n) For humans, the haploid number is 23 (n = 23) consists of 22 autosomes and a single sex chromosome In an unfertilized egg (ovum), the sex chromosome is X In a sperm cell, the sex chromosome may be either X or Y

Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles

A life cycle is the generation-to-generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism

Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid

Like mitosis, meiosis is preceded by the replication of chromosomes Meiosis takes place in two sets of cell divisions, called meiosis I and meiosis II The two cell divisions result in four daughter cells, rather than the two daughter cells in mitosis Each daughter cell has only half as many chromosomes as the parent cell

The Stages of Meiosis

After chromosomes duplicate, two divisions follow
Meiosis I (reductional division): homologs pair up and separate, resulting in two haploid daughter cells with replicated chromosomes Meiosis II (equational division) sister chromatids separate

The result is four haploid daughter cells with unreplicated chromosomes

Figure 13.7-3

Interphase
Pair of homologous chromosomes in diploid parent cell Duplicated pair of homologous chromosomes Sister chromatids Chromosomes duplicate

Diploid cell with duplicated chromosomes

Meiosis I

1 Homologous chromosomes separate Haploid cells with duplicated chromosomes

Meiosis II
2 Sister chromatids separate

Haploid cells with unduplicated chromosomes

 Meiosis I involves:
Synapsis homologous chromosomes pair up. Chiasmata form (crossing over of non-sister chromatids). In Metaphase I, homologous pairs line up at metaphase plate. In Anaphase I, sister chromatids do NOT separate. Overall, separation of homologous pairs of chromosomes, rather than sister chromatids of individual chromosome.

 Meiosis I is preceded by interphase, when the chromosomes are duplicated to form sister chromatids The sister chromatids are genetically identical and joined at the centromere The single centrosome replicates, forming two centrosomes

 Division in meiosis I occurs in four phases

Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I and cytokinesis

Figure 13.8a

Prophase I
Centrosome (with centriole pair) Sister chromatids Chiasmata Spindle

Metaphase I

Anaphase I
Sister chromatids remain attached

Telophase I and Cytokinesis

Centromere (with kinetochore) Metaphase plate

Fragments Homologous chromosomes of nuclear envelope

Homologous chromosomes separate Microtubule attached to kinetochore

Cleavage furrow

Each pair of homologous chromosomes separates.

Chromosomes line up Duplicated homologous chromosomes (red and blue) by homologous pairs. pair and exchange segments; 2n 6 in this example.

Two haploid cells form; each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids.

Prophase I
1. Chromosomes begin to condense, homologs loosely paired. 2. Paired homologs undergo synapsis: the homologs physically connected by synaptonemal complex. 3. Crossing over: genetic rearrangement between nonsister chromatid-exchange of DNA segments.

4. Each pair of chromosomes forms a tetrad, a group of four chromatids Each tetrad usually has one or more chiasmata, Xshaped regions where crossing over occurred

5. Centrosome movement, spindle formation, nuclear envelop breakdown. 6. Late prophase: microtubules attach to kinetochores at the centromere of the two homologs.

Metaphase I
1. In metaphase I, tetrads line up at the metaphase plate, with one chromosome facing each pole 2. Microtubules from one pole are attached to the kinetochore of one chromosome of each tetrad 3. Microtubules from the other pole are attached to the kinetochore of the other chromosome

Anaphase I
1. In anaphase I, pairs of homologous chromosomes separate 2. One chromosome moves toward each pole, guided by the spindle apparatus 3. Sister chromatids remain attached at the centromere and move as one unit toward the pole

Telophase I and Cytokinesis

1. In the beginning of telophase I, each half of the cell has a haploid set of chromosomes; each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids 2. Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously, forming two haploid daughter cells 3. Chromosome decondense, nuclear envelopes form

4. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms; in plant cells, a cell plate forms 5. No chromosome replication occurs between the end of meiosis I and the beginning of meiosis II because the chromosomes are already replicated

 Division in meiosis II also occurs in four phases

Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II and cytokinesis

Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis

Figure 13.8b

Prophase II

Metaphase II

Anaphase II

Telophase II and Cytokinesis

During another round of cell division, the sister chromatids finally separate; four haploid daughter cells result, containing unduplicated chromosomes. Sister chromatids separate Haploid daughter cells forming

Prophase II In prophase II, a spindle apparatus forms In late prophase II, chromosomes (each still composed of two chromatids) move toward the metaphase plate

Metaphase II
In metaphase II, the sister chromatids are arranged at the metaphase plate Because of crossing over in meiosis I, the two sister chromatids of each chromosome are no longer genetically identical The kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to microtubules extending from opposite poles

Anaphase II
In anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate The sister chromatids of each chromosome now move as two newly individual chromosomes toward opposite poles

Telophase II and Cytokinesis

In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles Nuclei form, and the chromosomes begin decondensing Cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm At the end of meiosis, there are four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of unreplicated chromosomes Each daughter cell is genetically distinct from the others and from the parent cell

A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis conserves the number of chromosome sets, producing cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes sets from two (diploid) to one (haploid), producing cells that differ genetically from each other and from the parent cell

Figure 13.9a

MITOSIS Parent cell

MEIOSIS Chiasma MEIOSIS I

Prophase Duplicated chromosome Chromosome duplication 2n 6 Chromosome duplication

Prophase I Homologous chromosome pair

Metaphase

Metaphase I

Anaphase Telophase

Daughter cells of meiosis I

Anaphase I Telophase I Haploid n3

2n Daughter cells of mitosis

2n

MEIOSIS II n n n n Daughter cells of meiosis II

 Three events are unique to meiosis, and all three occur in meiosis l
Synapsis and crossing over in prophase I: Homologous chromosomes physically connect and exchange genetic information At the metaphase plate, there are paired homologous chromosomes (tetrads), instead of individual replicated chromosomes At anaphase I, it is homologous chromosomes, instead of sister chromatids, that separate

FIN
Verily, after each difficulty, there are reliefAl-Insyirah

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