Theories of Criminal Behaviour

Biological Roots of Criminal Behavior

Major Principles of Biological Theories

The brain is the organ of the mind and the locus of personality The basic determinants of human behavior are constitutionally or genetically based Observed gender and racial differences in rates and types of criminality may be at least partially the result of biological differences between the sexes and/or between racially distinct groups

Major Principles of Biological Theories

The basic determinants of human behavior may be passed on from generation to generation Much of human conduct is fundamentally rooted in instinctive behavioral responses characteristic of biological organisms everywhere The interplay between heredity, biology, and the social environment provides the nexus for any realistic consideration of crime causation

Early Biological Theories

Lombroso in 1876 argued that the criminal is a separate species, a species that is between modern and primitive humans. He argued that the physical shape of the head and face determined the "born criminal".

Early Biological Theories

Lombroso

studied and measured the bodies of executed and deceased offenders as well as examining living inmates to locate physical differences or abnormalities
Claimed to have found a variety of bodily features predictive of criminal behavior Long arms, large teeth, ears lacking lobes, lots of body hair Also identified characteristics of particular types of offenders

Early Biological Theories

Constitutional Theories

William Sheldon
Used

body measurement techniques to connect body type with personality and outlined four basic body types and associated temperaments and personalities

Body types

1.

2.
3.

people could be classified into three body shapes, which correspond with three different personality types. endomorphic (fat and soft) tend to be sociable and relaxed. ectomorphic (thin and fragile) are introverted and restrained mesomorphic (muscular and hard) tend to be aggressive and adventurous. Sheldon, using a correlational study, found that many convicts were mesomorphic, and they were least likely to be ectomorphic

Endomorph, Mesomorph, Ectomorph,

Modern Biological Theories

Biochemical (diet, hypoglycemia, hormones, environmental exposure) Neurophysiological (brain dysfunction) Evolutionary theories

Modern Biological Theories

Hormones and criminality Testosterone Male sex hormone linked to aggression Research has shown a relationship between high blood testosterone levels and increase male aggression Low brain levels of serotonin Genetics and Crime: XYY Supermale Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes The last pair determines gender Males: XY pair Females: XX pair A study of Scottish prisoners found that a small number had an XYY chromosome.These were identified as potentially violent and labeled supermale Criminal Families criminal families appeared to show criminal tendencies through several generations

Modern Biological Theories

Weather and Crime

Temperature

is the only weather variable consistently and reliably related to crime

Positive correlation between temperature and violent crime

Moderated by factors such as time of day, day of week and season. Cohn and Rotton have found temperature to be related to crimes such as assault, property offenses, domestic violence and disorderly conduct

Chemical and environmental precursors of crime (nutrition, eating habits, and environmental contaminants related to violent and/or disruptive behavior)

Psychological approach to the study of crime

Psychological Perspectives on Criminality

Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud (18561939): One can understand human behavior best by examining early childhood experiences. Criminality is linked to guilt feelings (unresolved oedipal and Electra complexes).

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Human behaviour is governed by primitive urges (eros and thanatos) of the ID. ID requires repression which results in formation of Ego and Superego.

Freudian Explanations of Delinquency

Human nature is inherently antisocial

Id:

infants start life with antisocial drives Superego: forms from experience Ego: helps to negotiate demands for instant gratification with acceptable behavior

Freudian Elements of Personality

Psychoanalytic interpretations

3 Main principles of psychodynamic theory when applied to delinquent + criminal behaviour are that delinquent behavior can be traced to faulty relationships in the family during the first years of life These faulty relationships result in inadequate ego and superego development These inadequacies in turn make it impossible for the child to control later delinquent impulses

Freudian Approach
John Bowlby (1946) studied 44 juvenile delinquents and compared them with noncriminal disturbed juveniles. 39% of the delinquents had experienced complete separation from their mothers for sixmonths or more during the first five years of their lives compared with 5% of the control group. early maternal deprivation was causally related to delinquent behaviour

Erik Erikson (1902-84)

Stage theorist. During adolescence identity vs. role confusion stage may result in identity crisis. Out-of-control behaviours (e.g. drug experimentation) reflect identity crisis.

Behavioural Theories

Social Learning Theory

Aggression Is learned, not innate. Requires personal observation of aggression or rewards for aggression. Involves behaviour modelling of family members, community members and mass media Three types of learning

Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Observational (vicarious) learning

Principles of Learning
Positive reinforcement: increases the target behavior by rewarding the individual Negative reinforcement: increases the target behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus Punishment: reduces the odds of the target behavior being repeated

Behavioural explanations of crime

All behaviour is learned - deviant behaviour is said to be learnt in much the same way as other behaviour Direct parental control: theorists tie delinquency to parents failure to effectively condition their children away from negative behaviors Glueck and Glueck: inconsistent and harsh punishment correlates with delinquent children Patterson: effective parenting (monitoring, punishing, and reinforcing behavior) correlates with nondeliquent children

Principles of Learning

Albert Bandura
Violence and aggression are produced by An arousal event (provocation). Learned aggressive skills. Expected success and rewards. Pro-violence values.

Bandura

-

Observational learning is thought to take place primarily in three contexts: 1. In the family 2. In the prevalent sub culture 3. Through cultural symbols such as television and books.
Observational learning: This is where viewers learn behaviours from watching others and may imitate them; many behaviours are learned from the media - Models: A model is a person who is observed and/or imitated.

Bobo doll experiments

show

preschoolers a short film of a person beating up a bobo doll. They were shown the short film twice, but there were three different endings watched by three different groups of children. First photo shown is the demonstrated short film with a person beating up a bobo doll. The second photo shown is what the preschoolers did after they watched the short film.

Media and Crime

Does media (TV and movies) influence aggression, violence, and criminal behavior? Conducive to role modeling:

Perpetrators

not punished Targets of violence show little pain Few long-term negative consequences

Media and Violence

Media provides aggressive scripts. Violence is copied. TV violence increases arousal level. TV violence promotes attitude change, suspicious feelings. TV violence promotes justification for violence. Media violence may disinhibit aggressive behaviour.

Policy Implications of Behaviorism

Criminals can learn pro-social behaviors to replace criminal actions

Cognitive Theory

Cognitive Psychology

Humans ability to engage in complex thoughts influences behavior Cognitions (like behaviors) can be learned Focus on

Cognitive structure (how people think) Cognitive content (what people think)

Cognitive Structure

Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning: humans advance through predictable stages of moral reasoning delinquency is not synonymous with immoral behaviour the reasoning of higher moral stages is less likely to fit in with a criminal lifestyle justification for violating the law can be found at all stages

Kohlbergs Stages of Moral Development (1 of 2)

Stage 1
Right

is blindly obeying those with power and authority. Emphasis is on avoiding punishment. Interests of others are not considered.

Stage 2
Right

is furthering ones own interests. Interests of others are important only as a way to satisfy self-interests.

Stage 3
Moral

reasoning is motivated by loyalties to others and a desire to live up to others standards.

Kohlbergs Stages of Moral Development (2 of 2)

Stage 4
Right

is following the rules of society and maintaining important social institutions (e.g., family, community). decisions are made by weighing individual rights against legal principles and the common good.

Stage 5
Moral

Stage 6
Moral

decisions are based on universal principles (e.g., human dignity, desire for justice). Principles are considered across different contexts and are independent of the law.

Moral Development
Research shows that Criminals tend to be in stages 1 and 2. Non-criminals are in higher stages. People in lower stages fear punishment. People in middle stages fear reaction of family and friends. People in highest stages believe in duty to others, universal rights.

Cognitive Content

Rationalizations or denials that support criminal behavior For example, a criminal thinks, Im not really hurting anyone. Criminals are more likely to express such thoughts, but the relationship (causation or correlation) to crime is unclear. Extremely common for sex offenders

Policy Implications of Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive theory translates easily into practice. Cognitive skills programs teach offenders cognitive skills like moral reasoning, anger management, or self-control. Cognitive restructuring attempts to change the content of an individuals thoughts. Combination cognitive-behavioral programs have had significant success.

Personality traits theory

Eysencks Theory of Personality

Argued against sociological theories. Criminal behavior resulted from an interaction of environment and biology. Based on biology.

Personality = Temperament (inborn/genetic)

Choleric
Central NS Extraverted

Neurotic

Melancholic

Intoverted

Ambiverts

Peripheral NS

Sanguine

Stable

Phlegmatic

Eysencks Personality Theory

Suggests that high levels of introvertism and extrovertism can be related to crime. Also introduced a P scale (psychoticism) to predict criminal behaviour.

definitions

stable extraverts (sanguine qualities such as outgoing, talkative, responsive, easygoing, lively, carefree, leadership) unstable extraverts (choleric qualities such as touchy, restless, excitable, changeable, impulsive, irresponsible) stable introverts (phlegmatic qualities such as - calm, even-tempered, reliable, controlled, peaceful, thoughtful, careful, passive) unstable introverts (melancholic qualities such as quiet, reserved, pessimistic, sober, rigid, anxious, moody).

Extraversion - Introversion

Reflects need for stimulation. Extraverts like excitement, become bored more easily, welcome the unconventional Criminals are more likely to be extraverts

Impulsive Thrill-seeking Willing to take chances May be less able to internalize societys rules i.e., less conditionable.

Neurotic -Stable and Crime

Criminals are more likely to be neurotic:

Emotionality acts as a drive to habitual ways of responding. When under stress do what you know best.

Impacts criminality only if the individual has developed anti-social habits. More important factor as one ages (habits become more engrained)

Psychoticism

Is not the same as psychosis No established physiological mechanism but testosterone, monoamine oxidase and serotonin may be involved. Similar to Primary Psychopathy

Cold cruelty, social insensitivity, dislike of others, attraction to the unusual.

Conclusion

The common emphasis of all psychological theories is on the individual. Each theory must be evaluated on its ability to account for criminality. Not all theories are well supported by evidence. Many psychological theories translate well into treatment programs.