Scientific Method

Hypothesis

Observations

Explanation
(or conclusion) Data Collection

Interpretation

Scientific Method

Hypothesis

Observations

Explanation
(or conclusion)

Theory
Data Collection

Interpretation

Earth Spheres and Plate Tectonics

Earth Spheres
Geosphere Hydrosphere Atmosphere Biosphere

Upper layer is crust; two types: continental oceanic

Thickest layer: mantle

Lowest layer: iron-nickel core (molten outer core; solid inner core)
01.03.a

Earths Crust
Outermost layer solid, rigid rock (and sediment, soil)

continental: 20 40 km thick light-colored, low density granite oceanic: 4 7 km thick dark, dense basalt

Some Layers Are Stronger than Others

Oceanic crust Lithosphere (stronger) Continental crust

Uppermost mantle
Asthenosphere (weaker) Asthenosphere: hot and weak; mostly solid

01.03.b1

Lithosphere & Asthenosphere

Lithosphere: Crust + upper portion of mantle rigid, strong rock broken into pieces plates

Asthenosphere (upper) mid-mantle: solid, weak behaves like plastic 1-2% molten
Result: plates float (move) on the asthenosphere.

Why Are Some Regions High In Elevation?

Some mountains built on top of crust

Regions with thick crust higher than thin crust

Regions with continental crust higher than oceanic crust

01.03.c1

Why Are Some Regions Higher In Elevation than Others?

Thick blocks higher than thin blocks

Dense materials are lower

01.03.m1

Relationship between crustal thickness and elevation: isostasy

Lithospheric Plates

03.07.b1

Thickest layer: mantle

Lowest layer: iron-nickel core (molten outer core; solid inner core)
01.03.a

Evidence for what is beneath the crust

Planets density Interior is more dense than basalt and granite Volcanoes Not completely solid, pieces of mantle Diamonds High pressure Seismic Information layers with different physical and chemical properties

W. W. Norton

Lithosphere Asthenosphere

Crust
Moho

Mantle

6400 km

Earths Mantle

Earths Mantle
Immediately beneath crust 2900 km thick 80% Earths volume Dark, dense peridotite (denser than crustal rocks) Three major portions upper portion: solid, strong, rigid rock (part of lithosphere) asthenosphere: solid, weak (behaves like plastic) 1-2% molten deeper portion: solid, strong, rigid rock

Earths Core
6000 degrees C Metal (Fe, Ni) Outer Core: liquid 2250 km thick Inner Core: solid 1220 km thick

Crust
Moho

Mantle

Core

Earth Spheres
Geosphere Hydrosphere Atmosphere Biosphere

Hydrosphere
Clouds and precipitation
0.001%

Glaciers 1.8%
Flowing water 0.01%

Oceans

97.5%

Groundwater
0.63%

Lakes

Ocean currents
01.07.a1

Earth Spheres
Geosphere Hydrosphere Atmosphere Biosphere

Atmosphere

Mixture of gases

79% nitrogen 21% oxygen argon carbon dioxide others

Water vapor Atmosphere blocks some light and UV Energy converted to infrared

Precipitation

Wind

Evaporation
01.07.b1

Land and sea absorb heat

Driving Mechanisms of Spheres?

Solar Radiation

Biosphere Atmosphere Hydrosphere

Heat of Formation + Radioactive Decay

Geosphere

Plate Tectonics
the processes and landforms resulting from the movement of lithospheric plates

What Moves the Plates?

Ridge push

03.07.a1

Slab pull

Other forces, such as convection in mantle

Driving Mechanism of Geosphere

Mantle Convection

Three Types of Relative Plate Motions

Move apart: divergent boundary Move toward each other: convergent boundary

Move horizontally past one another: transform boundary

03.03.b1-3

Observe the locations of different types of plate boundaries

03.03.c1

Oceanic Divergent Boundaries

Oceanic plates move apart at mid-ocean ridges (seafloor spreading)

Forms new oceanic crust

Mid-Atlantic Ridge

03.04.a1-2

Features and Processes of Mid-Ocean Ridges

Narrow trough, or rift Ridge high (hot rocks and thin lithosphere) Magma erupts or solidifies at depth; forms new oceanic crust

Asthenosphere rises and melts

03.04.a

Magma rises through fractures

Observe what happens when continents rift apart Initial uplift from rising mantle

Stretching and faulting form rift Melting forms magma Can lead to seafloor spreading and new ocean basin

Ocean widens with spreading

03.04.b1-4

Ocean-Ocean Convergent Boundary

Two oceanic plates move toward one another Trench and island arc

One plate moves down = subduction

03.05.a1

Ocean-Continent Convergent Boundary

Oceanic and continental plate converge Volcanoes and squeezing form mountain belt

Trench

03.05.b1

Oceanic plate subducted beneath continent

Overlying mantle melted

Observe the distribution of volcanoes around the Pacific Ring of Fire

What do you think could explain the overall pattern?

03.05.c1

Pacific Ring of Fire

Oceanic plates subducted on both sides

03.05.c2

Subduction beneath oceanic plates = island arcs

Subduction beneath continental plates = mountain belts with volcanoes

Two continents collide

Continent-Continent Convergence
Subduction of oceanic part of plate

Subduction brings continents closer

Continents collide
03.05.d1-3

Continental collision = wide zone of deformation

Pieces sliced off

Thick crust = high elevation Few volcanoes

Continental plate buoyant, so subduction ends

03.05.d3

Transform Boundary
Observe how these two plates are moving past each other Plates move horizontally past one another

Transform boundaries link other types of plate boundaries, like two spreading centers
03.07.d1

Transform Boundary
Observe how these two plates are moving past each other

Plates move horizontally past one another

Link other types of plate boundaries

03.06.a1

Observe the pattern of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Spreading segments Transforms

03.06.a2

Observe plate boundaries near the west coast of North America (green lines are transform boundaries)

03.06.b1

Rates of Relative Plate Movement

Plates move cm/year Some move faster than others

Which plate boundaries have the fastest rates?

03.07.b1

Formation of Linear Island Chains

03.08.c

Lines of islands and seamounts

Plate moves over a hot spot Volcano forms over hot spot Volcanism shuts off as area moves away

Plate subsides as cools, so islands become seamounts

Examples of Linear Chains

Africa

Hawaii

03.08.c

Pacific Ocean

Atlantic Ocean