Original by Paul Meyer

Screws and Fasteners

Original by Paul Meyer
Fastening
Typical methods for fastening or joining parts

Bolts
Nuts
Cap screws
Setscrews
Rivets
Spring retainers
Locking devices
Pins
Keys
Welds
Adhesives


Original by Paul Meyer
Fastening
Goal reduce the number of fasteners

747 has over 2.5 million fasteners some very costly

Overwhelming variety available

Methods of joining very important need thorough
understanding
Original by Paul Meyer
Reasons for Non-permanent Fasteners
Field assembly
Disassembly
Maintenance
Adjustment

Original by Paul Meyer
Thread Standards and Definitions
Pitch distance between
adjacent threads.
Reciprocal of threads per
inch
Major diameter largest
diameter of thread
Minor diameter
smallest diameter of
thread
Pitch diameter
theoretical diameter
between major and
minor diameters, where
tooth and gap are same
width
Original by Paul Meyer
Screw Forms
Unified (US)
coarse pitch (UNC)
fine pitch (UNF)
10 32 UNF
Metric (International ISO)
coarse pitch
fine pitch
M 16 x1.5
Square threads
ACME threads
(common for simple mechanism)
Original by Paul Meyer
Ball Screws
For demanding applications; Tool tables, .also high speed!
Original by Paul Meyer
Standardization
The American National (Unified) thread standard defines
basic thread geometry for uniformity and interchangeability

American National (Unified) thread
UN normal thread
UNR greater root radius for fatigue applications

Metric thread
M series (normal thread)
MJ series (greater root radius)
Original by Paul Meyer
Standardization
Coarse series UNC
General assembly
Frequent disassembly
Not good for vibrations
The normal thread to specify
Fine series UNF
Good for vibrations
Good for adjustments
Automotive and aircraft
Extra Fine series UNEF
Good for shock and large vibrations
High grade alloy
Instrumentation
Aircraft
Original by Paul Meyer
Standardization
Basic profile for metric M and MJ threads shown below
Tables 151 and 152 define basic dimensions for standard
threads for both standards
Original by Paul Meyer
Diameters and Areas for Metric Threads (Shigley)
M 16 x1.5
Original by Paul Meyer
Diameters and Areas for Unified Screw Threads (Shigley)
Table 82
10 32 UNF
Original by Paul Meyer
Lead
Horizontal motion per revolution
L = p Lead for single thread
L = N
t
p Lead for multi (double=2) thread
tan = L/(td
p
) Lead angle

when > tan () self locking
Original by Paul Meyer
Four different absolute motions
Translation of the nut (screw rotates)
Translation of the screw (nut rotates)
Translation of the screw as it rotates (nut constrained)
Translation of the nut as it rotates (screw constrained)

Regardless of actual configuration:
A given rotation produces a resulting translation

Equation notation:
A refers to the part which rotates
B refers to the other part

s
B/A
= L
A
v
B/A
= L
A
a
B/A
= Lo
A

Screw Kinematics
Original by Paul Meyer
Sample 1
Wine press
Screw rotates at 80 rpm
Screw x 6 ACME
Determine the translation velocity and the
number of revolutions to move 3.5 inches

Original by Paul Meyer
Sample 1
Original by Paul Meyer
Sample 1
Wine press
Screw rotates at 80rpm
Screw x 6 ACME
Determine the translation velocity and the
number of revolutions to move 3.5 inches



Solution
A: screw
B: nut
p = 0.167in
L = 0.167 in/rev (single thread)
s
B/A
= L
A


A
= s
B/A
/L = 3.5in/0.167 in/rev = 20.96 rev
v
B/A
= Le
A
= 0.167in/rev* 80 rpm =13.36 in/min
Original by Paul Meyer
Sample 2
Trash press
Screws left and right rotates with 45 rpm counterclockwise
Screw x 10 ACME; one left hand; one right hand
Determine the translation velocity of the plate when |=25

Solution
A: screws
B: nuts
p = 0.1 in
L = 0.1 in/rev
Original by Paul Meyer
Sample 2
Kinematic diagram
n= 5;
j
p
=5
DoF=3(5-1)-2(5)=2

Threaded
V
nut/screw
= Le
A
= 0.1 in/rev* 45rev/min=4.5in/min
Relative velocity = absolute velocity
V
nut A
= V
nut C
= 4.5in/min
Velocity of the plate V
B

V
B
= V
nut A
+ V
B/A
= V
C
+ V
B/C
tan(90 |) = V
B
/V
A
V
B
= 12.4 in/min


Original by Paul Meyer
Equilibrium
EF = 0
Forces on a Power Screw
=

P
N
cos sin
= P N(cos sin ) 0
+ = P Ncos N sin 0
Vertical
+
=

P(sin cos )
F
cos sin
+ = F N(sin cos ) 0
= F Ncos Nsin 0
Horizontal
Original by Paul Meyer
Torque on screw is:



What about the torque on the collar?



Total torque to lift the load with tan = L/(td
p
)

Forces on a Power Screw
2
c
c c
d
T P =
( )
2 2
u
p p
c
u s c c
p
Pd d L
d
T T T P
d L
t

t
+
= + = +

( cos sin )
2 2 cos sin
u
p p
s
d Pd
T F


+
= =

Original by Paul Meyer

Total torque to lower the load

Forces on a Power Screw
( )
2 2
d
p p
c
d s c c
p
Pd d L
d
T T T P
d L
t

= + = +
+
Original by Paul Meyer
Self-locking




Efficiency

(loss in friction)


Self Locking and Efficiency Power Screws
> o tan cos
= t
=
= =
t
t o
=
t t + o

=
+
in
out
out
in
p
p p
W 2 T
W PL
W
PL
e
W 2 T
d cos L
L
d d L cos
1- tan
e
1 cot
> tan
ACME
Square when o=0
Square
Original by Paul Meyer
Sample 3
Screw jack mechanism
Belt rotates with 300 rpm
nut 1 x 5 ACME rotates
Screw constrained with pin
Lifts 500 lb
Friction = 0.2
Determine the translation
velocity; the torque; the
efficiency; is it self locking
Original by Paul Meyer
Sample 3
Screw jack mechanism
p = 0.20 in
L = 0.20 in/rev
= 0.20
v
screw
= Le
nut
= 0.2*300 = 60 in/min
t +
= =
t
p p
p
Pd ( d L )
T 61.8in lb
2 d L
t o
= =
t t + o
p
p p
d cos L
L
e 0.23
d d L cos
= =
t
>
p
L
tan 0.071
d
tan
Self locking !
Original by Paul Meyer
What is tensile cross sectional area?
Average of maximum area and minimum area
Typically given in tables
Tensile (Axial) Stress
2
4 2
1.299038
0.649519
1.226869
0.649519
p r
t
r
p
r
p
d d
A
d d
N
d d
N
d d p
d d p
t
+
| |
=
|
\ .
=
=
=
=
t
t
A
F
= o
UNS
ISO
Original by Paul Meyer
Stripping of the threads
Nut
If weaker material
At the major diameter
Screw
If weaker material
At the minor diameter
More than one thread must be stripped
Good fit
Ductile
One thread takes entire load
Poor fit
Brittle
Shear Stress
Original by Paul Meyer
( )
( ) p dw j A
p w d j A
o s
i r s
t
t
=
=
Number of threads in contact
Screw stripping
Nut stripping
Percent contact
(Table 15-5)
pitch
Shear Stress Area
Note: d < 1 requires nut lengths greater than 0.5d
Note: d > 1 requires nut lengths greater than 0.6d
Original by Paul Meyer
Worst case situation
Total Torque
Use the minor diameter
Torsional Stress
3
16
r
d
T
J
Tr
t
t = =
Original by Paul Meyer
Essentially all of the load is taken by the first two threads but
design for at least 1 diameter of engagement
Experiments indicate the first thread carries 38% of the load, the second
thread 25%, and the third thread 18%. The seventh thread is free of load

Typically the nut material is weaker than screw

Bolts should be further than 1.5 to 2 diameters from edges

Bolt spacing should not exceed about 6 diameters

The required torque to create desired preload F
i
when the size d
of a fastener is known
T=0.20F
i
d
Rules of Thumb
Original by Paul Meyer
Head Type of Bolts
Hexagon head bolt
Usually uses nut
Heavy duty
Hexagon head cap screw
Thinner head
Often used as screw (in
threaded hole, without nut)
Socket head cap screw
Usually more precision
applications
Access from the top
Machine screws
Usually smaller sizes
Slot or Philips head common
Threaded all the way
Original by Paul Meyer
Machine Screws
Original by Paul Meyer
Hexagon-Head Bolt
Hexagon-head bolts are one of the most common for
engineering applications
Standard dimensions are included in Shigley Table A29
W is usually about 1.5 times nominal diameter
Bolt length L is measured from below the head
Original by Paul Meyer
Bolt Materials
Grades specify material, heat treatment, strengths
Table 15-6 for SAE grades
Table 810 (Shigley) for ASTM designations
Table 15-7 for metric property class

Grades should be marked on head of bolt

Original by Paul Meyer
Bolt Materials
Proof load is the maximum load that
a bolt can withstand without acquiring
a permanent set

Proof strength is the quotient of proof
load and tensile-stress area
Corresponds to proportional limit
Slightly lower than yield strength
Typically used for static strength
of bolt

Good bolt materials have stress-
strain curve that continues to rise to
fracture

Original by Paul Meyer
SAE Specifications for Steel Bolts
Original by Paul Meyer
ASTM Specification for Steel Bolts
Original by Paul Meyer
Metric Mechanical-Property Classes for Steel Bolts
Original by Paul Meyer
Bolt Specification
Nominal diameter
-20 x in UNC-2 Grade 5 Hex head bolt
Threads per inch
length
Thread series
Class fit
Material grade
Head type
M12 x 1.75 ISO 4.8 Hex head bolt
Metric
Nominal diameter
Pitch
Material class
Original by Paul Meyer
Threaded Lengths
Metric
English
Original by Paul Meyer
Nuts
See Shigley Appendix A31 for typical specifications
First three threads of nut carry majority of load
Localized plastic strain in the first thread is likely, so nuts should
not be re-used in critical applications.
End view Washer-faced,
regular
Chamfered both
sides, regular
Washer-faced,
jam nut
Chamfered
both sides,
jam nut
Original by Paul Meyer
Tension Loaded Bolted Joint
Grip length l includes
everything being compressed
by bolt preload, including
washers

Washer under head prevents
burrs at the hole from
gouging into the fillet under
the bolt head
Original by Paul Meyer
Pressure Vessel Head
Hex-head cap screw in
tapped hole used to fasten
cylinder head to cylinder
body

Note O-ring seal, not
affecting the stiffness of the
members within the grip

Only part of the threaded
length of the bolt contributes
to the effective grip l

Original by Paul Meyer
Effective Grip Length for Tapped Holes
For screw in tapped hole,
effective grip length is
Original by Paul Meyer
Bolted Joint Stiffnesses
During bolt preload
bolt is stretched
members in grip are
compressed

When external load P is
applied
Bolt stretches further
Members in grip
uncompress some

Joint can be modeled as a
soft bolt spring in parallel
with a stiff member spring
Fig. 813
Original by Paul Meyer
Bolt Stiffness
Axially loaded rod, partly
threaded and partly
unthreaded
Consider each portion as
a spring
Combine as two springs
in series

Original by Paul Meyer
Procedure to Find Bolt Stiffness
(Shigley)
(Shigley)
Original by Paul Meyer
Procedure to Find Bolt Stiffness
(Shigley)
Original by Paul Meyer
Procedure to Find Bolt Stiffness
15-1 or 15-2
Original by Paul Meyer
Member Stiffness
Stress distribution spreads from face
of bolt head and nut
Model as a cone with top cut off
Called a frustum

Original by Paul Meyer
Member Stiffness
Model compressed members as if they are frusta spreading
from the bolt head and nut to the midpoint of the grip
Each frustum has a half-apex angle of o
Find stiffness for frustum in compression

Fig. 815
Original by Paul Meyer
Member Stiffness
Original by Paul Meyer
Member Stiffness
With typical value of o = 30,



Use Shigley Eq. (820) to find stiffness for each frustum
Combine all frusta as springs in series
Original by Paul Meyer
Member Stiffness for Common Material in Grip
If the grip consists of any number of members all of the same
material, two identical frusta can be added in series. The entire
joint can be handled with one equation,



d
w
is the washer face diameter
Using standard washer face diameter of 1.5d, and with o = 30,



Original by Paul Meyer
Example 8-2
Fig. 817
Original by Paul Meyer
Example 8-2
Fig. 817
Original by Paul Meyer
Example 8-2
Fig. 817b
Original by Paul Meyer
Example 8-2
Fig. 817b
Original by Paul Meyer
Example 8-2
Fig. 817b
Original by Paul Meyer
Example 8-2
Fig. 817b
Original by Paul Meyer
Example 8-2
Fig. 817b
Original by Paul Meyer
Example 8-2
Fig. 817a
Original by Paul Meyer
Elongation Measurement
Micrometer (measure the elongation)
Resistance gage (measure the resistance in current imposed
by elongation)
Ultra sound

Torque Oriented
Torque Wrench (within 30% of preload)
Count number of turns
Break-away controlled tension bolts (special wrenches used to
twist off tips of bolts at desired torque)
Load indicating washers (sprung washers used until flat)
Controlling Preloading
Original by Paul Meyer
Tension Loaded Bolted Joints
Original by Paul Meyer
Tension Loaded Bolted Joints
During bolt preload
bolt is stretched
members in grip are compressed
When external load P is applied
Bolt stretches an additional
amount o
Members in grip uncompress
same amount o
Original by Paul Meyer
Stiffness Constant
Since P = P
b
+ P
m
,



C is defined as the stiffness constant of the joint


C indicates the proportion of external load P that the bolt will
carry. A good design target is around 0.2.



Original by Paul Meyer
Bolt and Member Loads
The resultant bolt load is


The resultant load on the members is


These results are only valid if the load on the members remains
negative, indicating the members stay in compression.
Original by Paul Meyer
Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension
Best way to measure bolt preload is by relating measured bolt
elongation and calculated stiffness

Usually, measuring bolt elongation is not practical

Measuring applied torque is common, using a torque wrench

Need to find relation between applied torque and bolt preload
Original by Paul Meyer
Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension
From the power screw equations, Eqs. (85) and (86), we get


Applying tan = l/td
m
,



Assuming a washer face diameter of 1.5d, the collar diameter is
d
c
= (d + 1.5d)/2 = 1.25d, giving



Note: f =

Original by Paul Meyer
Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension
Define term in brackets as torque coefficient K

Original by Paul Meyer
Typical Values for Torque Coefficient K
Some recommended values for K for various bolt finishes is
given in Table 815
Use K = 0.2 for other cases so that T=0.2F
i
d

Original by Paul Meyer
Distribution of Preload vs Torque
Measured preloads for 20 tests at same torque have
considerable variation
Mean value of 34.3 kN
Standard deviation of 4.91
Table 813
Original by Paul Meyer
Distribution of Preload vs Torque
Same test with lubricated bolts
Mean value of 34.18 kN (unlubricated 34.3 kN)
Standard deviation of 2.88 kN (unlubricated 4.91 kN)







Lubrication made little change to average preload vs torque
Lubrication significantly reduces the standard deviation of
preload vs torque
Table 814
Original by Paul Meyer
Tension Loaded Bolted Joints: Static Factors of Safety
Axial Stress:
Yielding Factor of Safety:
Load Factor:
Joint Separation Factor:
Original by Paul Meyer
Preloading
Three different materials are in tension/compression
Bolt (threaded and unthreaded)
Top link
Bottom link
What are the stiffnesses?
AE
Pl
= o
Original by Paul Meyer
Recommended Preload
Original by Paul Meyer
Gasketed Joints
For a full gasket compressed between members of a bolted
joint, the gasket pressure p is found by dividing the force in the
member by the gasket area per bolt.


The force in the member, including a load factor n,


Thus the gasket pressure is
Original by Paul Meyer
Gasketed Joints
Uniformity of pressure on the gasket is important
Adjacent bolts should not be more than six nominal diameters
apart on the bolt circle
For wrench clearance, bolts should be at least three diameters
apart
This gives a rough rule for bolt spacing around a bolt circle of
diameter D
b
Original by Paul Meyer
Original by Paul Meyer
Bolted and Riveted Joints Loaded in Shear
Shear loaded joints are
handled the same for
rivets, bolts, and pins
Several failure modes
are possible
(a) Joint loaded in shear
(b) Bending of bolt or
members
(c) Shear of bolt
(d) Tensile failure of
members
(e) Bearing stress on
bolt or members
(f) Shear tear-out
(g) Tensile tear-out
Original by Paul Meyer
Failure by Bending
Bending moment is approximately M = Ft / 2, where t is the
grip length, i.e. the total thickness of the connected parts.
Bending stress is determined by regular mechanics of
materials approach, where I/c is for the weakest member or for
the bolt(s).

Original by Paul Meyer
Failure by Shear of Bolt
Simple direct shear


Use the total cross sectional area of bolts that are carrying the
load.
For bolts, determine whether the shear is across the nominal
area or across threaded area. Use area based on nominal
diameter or minor diameter, as appropriate.

Original by Paul Meyer
Failure by Tensile Rupture of Member
Simple tensile failure


Use the smallest net area of the member, with holes removed


Original by Paul Meyer
Failure by Bearing Stress
Failure by crushing known as bearing stress
Bolt or member with lowest strength will crush first
Load distribution on cylindrical surface is non-trivial
Customary to assume uniform distribution over projected
contact area, A = td
t is the thickness of the thinnest plate and d is the bolt
diameter




Original by Paul Meyer
Failure by Shear-out or Tear-out
Edge shear-out or tear-out is avoided by spacing bolts at least
1.5 diameters away from the edge




Original by Paul Meyer
Shear Joints with Eccentric Loading
Eccentric loading is when the load does not pass along a line of
symmetry of the fasteners.
Requires finding moment about centroid of bolt pattern
Centroid location

Original by Paul Meyer
Shear Joints with Eccentric Loading
(a) Example of eccentric
loading
(b) Free body diagram
(c) Close up of bolt pattern

Original by Paul Meyer
Shear Joints with Eccentric Loading
Primary Shear

Secondary Shear, due to moment
load around centroid
Original by Paul Meyer
References
Original by Paul Meyer
Shigley A-29 Bolt Tables
Shigley A-30 Cap Screw Tables
Shigley A-31Hex Nut Tables
Shigley A-32 Washer Tables
Shigley A-33 Metric Washer Tables
References