Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Aircraft Design Day2
Aircraft Design Day2
FUSELAGE
FUSELAGE
• An aircraft’s main body section that holds
crew and passengers or cargo
• It is derived from the French word “Fusele –
Spindle shaped”
FUSELAGE
FUSELAGE ASSEMBLAGE
TYPES OF FUSELAGE STRUCTURE
• Box truss type
– The structural elements resemble those of a
bridge, with emphasis on using linked
triangular elements. The aerodynamic shape
is completed by additional elements called
formers and stringers and is then covered
with fabric and painted
• Monocoque
– the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the
primary structure
• Semi-monocoque
– A series of frames in the shape of the
fuselage cross sections are held in position on
a rigid fixture, or jig. These frames are then
joined with lightweight longitudinal elements
called stringers. These are in turn covered
with a skin of sheet aluminum, attached by
riveting or by bonding with special adhesives
SEMI-MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE
Semi-monocoque fuselage structure consists of
• Longerons / stringers (Longitudinal members)
Longerons carries the bending load as axial load
Stringers also carry axial load
Stringers stabilize the skin
• Framing (Transverse members)
Provide the shape to the fuselage
Reduce the stringer length thus avoiding overall instability
• Skin
Carries the shear load from the cabin pressure, external
transverse and torsional loads
• Bulkheads
Bulkheads are provided at concentrated loading regions
such as wing attachments, tail attachments and landing gear
locations
SEMI-MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE
COMPARISON OF FUSELAGE &
WING STRUCTURE
WINGS FUSELAGE
Spar caps carry axial loads Longerons and stringers carry axial
induced by bending load induced by bending
Shear loads are resisted by Transverse shear loads are carried by
spar web skin
Rib design is influenced by Fuselage frames are influenced by
local air loads concentrated loads
Wing skin thickness is more Because of the curvature, the fuselage
compared to fuselage skin skins under compressive and shear
load are more stable
Less skin thickness is used
External pressure loads are External pressure loads are very less
more on the wing skin on the fuselage skin
FUSELAGE CONFIGURATION
AERODYNAMIC SMOOTHNESS
PASSENGER REQUIREMENT
• Former frame
– Pitch = 20”
• Bulkhead frame
STRINGER FRAME CONNECTION
• Stringer and frame are
connected through clips
• Stringer clips
– Transfer the skin panel normal
pressure loads to frame
– Helps break up of effective
column length
– Provides some degree of
compressive strength at the inner
cap
– Acts as frame web panel stiffener
FLOOR BEAMS
COCKPIT
EMPENNAGE
• Empennage is the tail
portion of an aircraft
• The empennage gives Vertical stabilizer
stability to the aircraft and
controls the pitch and yaw.
• In simple terms the
empennage may be
compared to the feathers of
an arrow, colloquially; "Tail
Feathers" Rudder
• Structurally, the
empennage consists of the Elevator
entire tail assembly,
including the fin, tail plane
and the part of the fuselage
to which these are attached. Fuselage Horizontal stabilizer
LANDING GEAR
• Air loads
– Manoeuvre
– Gust
BASIC FLIGHT LOADS
• Positive high angle of attack
– Normal force (N) produces compressive stress on the wing upper
portion
– Moments from the chord wise force (C) produces compressive stress
on the leading edge
– Critical for compressive stresses in upper forward region and tensile
stresses in lower aft of the wing
• Positive low angle of attack
– Chord wise force (C) is the largest force acting aft on the wing
– Wing bending moment produce maximum compressive stresses in
upper front spar flange and maximum tensile stresses in the lower
front spar flange
• Negative high angle of attack
– Loads are smaller compared to positive high angle of attack
– Wing bending moment produce maximum compressive stresses in
lower forward region and maximum tensile stresses in the upper aft
region
• Negative low angle of attack
– Chord wise force (C) is the largest force acting aft on the wing
– Maximum compressive bending stresses in lower aft region and
tensile stresses in the upper forward region of the wing
AIRCRAFT LOADS
– UNCERTAINTIES IN LOADS
– INACCURACIES IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
– VARIATIONS IN STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
– DETORIATION DURING SERVICE LIFE
– VARIATION IN FABRICATION IN NOMINALLY IDENTICAL
COMPONENTS
AIRSPEED
• Airspeed (AS)
– Speed of the aircraft relative to air
• Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
– Speed of an aircraft as shown on its pitot static airspeed
indicator
• True Airspeed (TAS)
– Physical speed of the aircraft relative to the air surrounding
the aircraft
Vt = V g − V w
2
AIRFOIL
• Airfoil is the shape of a wing or blade (of
a propeller, rotor or turbine) or sail as
seen in cross-section
• Airfoils are
– Symmetric (Mean camber line coincides
with chord line)
– Cambered
AIRFOIL TERMINOLOGY
Leading edge
Trailing edge
F = ∑ pn A = ∫ pn dA
Γ
LIFT GENERATION
• Lift is a force generated by turning a
moving fluid
(t − t )
1 0
0
L F
Induced drag
2
2W
Di =
πρeV 2 b 2
REDUCTION OF INDUCED DRAG
• Winglets offer the best reduction in induced
drag
• Winglets also produce additional thrust
WAVE DRAG
• Wave drag is caused by the formation of shock waves
around the aircraft
• Shock waves radiate away a considerable amount of
energy, energy that is experienced by the aircraft as
drag
• Although shock waves are typically associated with
supersonic flow, they can form at much lower speeds
at areas on the aircraft where, according Bernoulli’s
principle, local airflow accelerates to supersonic
speeds over curved areas
• The effect is typically seen at speeds of about Mach
0.8, but it is possible to notice the problem at any
speed over that of the critical Mach of that aircraft's
wing
• The magnitude of the rise in drag is impressive,
typically peaking at about four times the normal
subsonic drag
RAM DRAG
• Ram drag is associated with slowing
down the free stream air as air is
brought inside the aircraft
V0
FD r = w0
g
w0 – Intake air mass flow
g – Acceleration due to gravity
v0 – Flight velocity
TOTAL DRAG
1 C d = C di + C dp
Total drag DT = ρV SC d
2
2
DRAG COEFFICIENT
Bodies Drag Coefficient
Airfoil Section, minimum [1] 0.006
Airfoil Section, at stall [1] 0.025
2-Element Airfoil 0.025
4-Element Airfoil 0.05
Subsonic Aircraft Wing, minimum [2] 0.05
Subsonic Aircraft Wing, at stall [2] 0.16
Subsonic Aircraft Wing, minimum [3] 0.005
Subsonic Aircraft Wing, at stall [3] 0.09
Subsonic Transport Aircraft 0.012
Supersonic Fighter, M=2.5 0.016
Airship 0.020-0.025
WEIGHT ESTIMATION
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION
Wpayload = Wpassenger+Wcrew+Wbags+Wcargo
EMPTY WEIGHT
• Empty weight of the aircraft
root
(1 + λ ) ( CosΛ ) S csw
0.1 −1.0 0.1
Ref: P.Raymer
Wing weight fraction ratio
1.05 −0.3
Wwg 0.55 −0.3 b 6.25cos Λc / 2 W zf
= 0.0017 nult t r ,max 1+
Wzf cos Λ b
c / 2 S
−5
Wmg = 40 + 0.16W 3/ 4
to + 0.019Wto + 1.5 ×10 W 3/ 2
to
−6
Wng = 20 + 0.10W 3/ 4
to + 2 ×10 W 3/ 2
to
• For A/c with take off weight > 10000 lbs, landing gear
weight is 3.5% to 4.5%
TAIL PLANE WEIGHT
• For main landing gear and nose landing gear
−5
Wmg = 40 + 0.16W 3/ 4
to + 0.019Wto + 1.5 ×10 W 3/ 2
to
−6
Wng = 20 + 0.10W 3/ 4
to + 2 ×10 W 3/ 2
to
• For A/c with take off weight > 10000 lbs, landing gear
weight is 3.5% to 4.5%
FUEL WEIGHT
• Fuel weight fraction (Wf/W0) can be
estimated based on the mission profile of the
aircraft
• Mission profile consists of
– Takeoff
– Climb
Wf Wx
– Cruise = 1.061 −
– Descend W0 W0
– Loiter
– Landing
TYPICAL MISSION PROFILE
3
2
4
5
6
1 7
0 Takeoff (0-1)
Climb (1-2)
Cruise (2-3)
Descend (3-4, 5-6)
Loiter (4-5)
Landing (6-7)
MISSION SEGMENT WEIGHT
V L W i −1
R= ln
C D Wi
W i −1 − RC
= exp
Wi V ( L / D)
LOITER FUEL WEIGHT
• Cruise fuel weight fraction is calculated from
endurance equation
1 L W i −1
E= ln
C D Wi
W i −1 − EC
= exp
Wi ( L / D)
• Land W5/W4=0.995
• W5/W0=0.995*0.917*0.855*0.985*0.97=0.745
• Wf/W0=1.06*(1-0.745)=0.270
AIRCRAFT COORDINATE
SYSTEM
STABILITY AND CONTROL
AIRCRAFT MOTIONS
(Y)
(X)
(Z)
AIRCRAFT MOTIONS
ROLLING
ROLLING
ROLLING
PITCHING
PITCHING
YAWING
YAWING
SPOILERS
FLAPS AND SLATS