Shafts Definition

Generally shafts are members which

rotate in order to transmit power or motion.
They are usually circular in cross section,
and thats the type we will analyze.
Shafts do not always rotate themselves,
as in the case of an axle but axles
support rotating members.
Common Shaft Types
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Elements Attached
to a Shaft
Shoulders provide axial positioning location, & allow
for larger center shaft diameter where bending
stress is highest.
Common Shaft Materials
Typically shafts are machined or cold-
drawn from plain hot-rolled carbon steel.
Applications requiring greater strength
often specify alloy steels (e.g., 4140).
Some corrosion applications call for
brass, stainless, Ti, or others.
Aluminum is not commonly used (low
modulus, low surface hardness).
Shafts for Steady Torsion
Often the rotating mass & static load on a
shaft are neglected, and the shaft is sized
simply to accommodate the transmitted
power. In such cases, the engineer
typically seeks to limit the maximum shear
stress t
max
to some value under the yield
stress in shear (S
ys
), or to limit the twist
angle | .
Shafts in Steady Torsion
Chapter 1 review equations:
kW = FV/1000 = Tn/9600
hp = FV/745.7 = Tn/7121
kW = kilowatts of power
F = tangential force (N)
V = tangential velocity (m/s)
T = torque (N x m)
n = shaft speed (rpm)

U.S. Power Units
Review equation:
hp = FV/33,000 = Tn/63,000
where,
hp = horsepower
F = tangential force (lb.)
V = tangential velocity (ft/min)
T = torque (lb - in.)
n = shaft speed (rpm)
Steady State Shaft Design
Because shafts are in torsion, the shear
stress is generally the limiting factor. Recall
that
t
max
= Tc/J
where c = radius, and, for a circular shaft,
J = td
4
/32
As always, use a safety factor of n to arrive at
t
all
= t
max
/n
Limiting the Twist Angle
In some cases, it is desired to limit the twist
angle to a certain value. Recall:
| = TL/GJ
L = length
G = shear modulus
| is always in radians (deg. x t/180)
Combined Static Loads
The axial stress is given by:
o
x
= Mc/I + P/A = 32M/ tD
3
+ 4P/ tD
2


(M = bending moment, P = axial load, D = diameter)
The torsional stress is given by:
t
xy
= Tc/J = 16T/ tD
3

(T = Torque, J = polar moment of inertia, c = radius)
(For circular cross sections.)
Maximum Shear Stress Theory
Typically the axial load P is small
compared to the bending moment M
and the torque T, and so it is neglected.
(Notice how direct shear is completely
omitted.)

Recall the maximum shear stress
criterion:
S
y
/n = (o
x
2
+ 4 t
xy
2
)
1/2

Maximum Shear Stress Theory
Substitute the previous values for o
x

and t
xy
into MSST to obtain:



S
y
n
32
t D
3

M
2
T
2
+
( )
1
2
This equation, or the related eq. for the
maximum energy of distortion theory
(MDET), is useful for finding either D or n.
Note that this would be for steady loads.
Fluctuating Loads
In their support of rotating members, most
shafts are subject to fluctuating loads,
possibly including a shock component as
well. Weve covered fatigue & impact in
previous lectures, and that material is
directly applied to the design of shafts.


Shock Factors
In shaft design, shock loading is typically
accounted for by yet more fudge factors,
K
sb
(bending shock) and K
st
(torsional
shock). The values of these factors range
from 1.0 to 2.0. The shock factors are
applied to their respective stress
components.
Shaft Design Formulas
There are a number of shaft design
formulas that incorporate failure theories
(MSST or MDET) with fatigue theories
(Goodman or Soderberg).
In practice, using MDET with the
Soderberg criterion is probably the most
accurate.
Shaft Design Formulas
; MDET with the Goodman criterion and shock
factors. For Soderberg, recall that you use S
y

instead of S
u
.
S
y
n
32
t D
3

M
2
T
2
+
( )
1
2
S
u
n
32
tD
3
K
sb
M
m
S
u
S
e
M
a
+
|

\
|
|
.
2
3
4
K
st
T
m
S
u
S
e
T
a
+
|

\
|
|
.
2
+

(
(

1
2
Fully-Reversed Bending
In analyzing a rotating shaft for fatigue life,
you will need to compute M
m
and M
a
. The
moment might be due to a rotating
imbalance or due to the tension from a
belt, or radial loading from gears. No
matter the case, because the shaft is
rotating, it experiences both tension and
compression from the bending loads:
therefore, typically, M
m
= 0, and M
a
= M
max
.
(A sinusoidal variation about zero.)
Example 9.2
Find required dia. of
shaft using MDET &
Soderberg fatigue
relation. Surface is
ground. S
u
= 810
MPa, and S
y
= 605
MPa. Torque varies
by +/- 10%. The
fatigue stress []
factor K
f
= 1.4.
Temp = 500
o
C, and
n = 2. Survival rate
= 50%.
Critical Speeds of Shafts
All structures exhibit one or more
natural, or resonant frequencies. When
a shaft rotates at speeds equal or close
to the natural frequencies, resonance
may occur. This is usually to be
avoided, although some designs feature
resonance.

Generally the designer tries to keep the
speed at least 25% lower than e
o
. But
in some cases, the operating speed is
higher.
The Rayleigh Equation
n
cr
= (1/2t)[ (gEWo)/(EWo
2
)]
1/2

n
cr
= critical speed (rev/sec)
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m
2
/s)
W = concentrated weight including load (kg)
o = respective static deflection of the weight.
Shaft Attachments
Many different methods, each with pros
and cons of both function, ease of use,
and cost: the designer must balance
between these factors.
Some methods are very weak compared
to the shaft (e.g., a set screw), others are
stronger than the shaft itself.

Shaft
Attachments:
Keys
Square (w ~ D/4) Flat Round (or tapered)
Gib head
Woodruff key
Shaft Attachments: Pins
Straight Tapered Roll
Shaft Attachments:
Tapered Clamps




www.ringfeder.com
Stresses in Keys
Distribution of force is
quite complicated. The
common assumption is
that the torque T is
carried by a tangential
force F acting on radius
r:
T = Fr
Stresses in Keys
From T = Fr, both shear and compressive
bearing stresses may be calculated from
the width and length of the key.
The safety factor ranges from n = 2
(ordinary service) to n = 4.5 (shock).
The stress concentration factor in the
keyway ranges from 2 to 4.
Splines
Splines permit axial motion between matching
parts, but transmit torque. Common use is
automotive driveshafts check your car.
Couplings
In many designs involving shafts, two
shafts must be connected co-axially.
Couplings are used to make these
connections.
Couplings are either rigid or flexible. Rigid
couplings require very close alignment of
the shafts, generally better than .001 per
inch of separation.

Rigid Couplings Sleeves
The simplest type of coupling is the
simple sleeve coupling. But this also
has the lowest torque capacity.


http://www.grainger.com/Grainger/wwg/start.shtml
Rigid Couplings - Flanged
Great web resource:
http://www.powertransmission.com/pages/couplings.htm
Keyed to shaft
Taper locked
Flexible Couplings
There are many types of flexible couplings
as well. Generally a flexible element is
sandwiched in between, or connected to,
rigid flanges attached to each shaft.
Alignment is still important! Reaction
forces increase with misalignment, and
often bearings are not sized properly for
reaction forces. Mechanics often
assume that because the coupling is
flexible, alignment is unimportant.
http://viva.rexnord.com/content/features.html
Two-piece Donut (or
toroidal) flexible
coupling
Universal Joints
U-joints are considered linkages rather
than couplings, but serve the same
purpose of transmitting rotation.
Very large angular displacements may
be accommodated.
Single joints are not constant-velocity.
Almost always, two joints are used. The
angles must be equal for uniform
velocity.
Shafts parallel
but offset
Shafts not
parallel but
intersecting
Its Not Nanotechnology,
But You Could Get Rich!
Despite decades of research and 1000s of
Ph.D. theses, highly engineered shafts
and components fail all too frequently.
Even NASA cant always get it right.
Often the connections are to blame: keys,
splines, couplings, and so on. Fatigue
wear failure is the culprit.
Bearing Definition

A device that supports, guides, and
reduces the friction of motion between
fixed and moving machine parts.
Bearing Types
Three major types: hydrodynamic or
journal bearings, rolling-element bearings,
and sleeve bearings.


Design of Journal Bearings
Nomenclature:
r = journal radius
c = radial clearance
L = length of bearing
q = viscosity
n = speed (rps)
W = radial load
P = load per projected
area (W/2rL)
In this figure, U = tangential velocity and F = frictional force
Journal Bearing Design Charts
Procedure: generally, you first calculate
the dimensionless Sommerfeld Number,
from,
S = (r/c)
2
(qn/P)
This characteristic number is used
along with the L/D ratio of the bearing to
enter the Design Charts. In some
cases, you find the Sommerfeld
Number from given data.
Journal Design Examples
Problem 10.6:

A 4-in. diameter 2-in. long bearing turns
at 1800 rpm; c/r = 0.001; h
0
= 0.001 in.
SAE 30 oil is used at 200F. Through the
use of the design charts, find the load W.


Journal Design
Example I
Looking at Figure
10.7, find the viscosity
for SAE 30 wt. Oil at
200
o
F, = 1.2 x 10
-6

reyns

In this problem, we
dont have enough
data to calculate S,
but we can look it up
on the charts
Oil
Viscosity
Fig. 10.7, p. 385
Journal Design Example I
We are given r = 2, and c/r = .001.
Therefore, the clearance c = .002.
We are also given the minimum film
thickness, h
o
= .001.
This enables us to enter Design Chart
with L/D = 0.5, and h
o
/c = 0.5.
Then, you can find S = 0.5 on the chart.
Journal Design Example
With S = 0.5, we can go back to the
definition of the Sommerfeld #, from
Equation :
S = (r/c)
2
(qn/P)
Rearranging this to solve for P, we
have
P = [(r/c)
2
qn]/S
Journal Design Example I
P = [(r/c)
2
qn]/S
S = 0.5
(c/r) = .001, so (r/c) = 1000
q = 1.2 x 10
-6
psi-sec
N = 1800 rpm = 30 rps
Therefore P = 72 psi, and,
W = P*L*D = 576 lbs.
Journal Design Example II
A 25mm diameter by 25mm long bearing
carries a radial load of 1.5 kN at 1000 rpm;
c/r = 0.0008, q = 50 mPa-sec. Use charts
to find:
A) The minimum oil film thickness h
o
B) The friction power loss
Journal Design Example II
In this case, we have enough information to
calculate the Sommerfeld #,
S = (r/c)
2
(qn/P)
P = W/DL = 1500/(.025*.025) = 2.4 MPa
n = 1000 rpm = 16.67 rps
c/r = .0008, so r/c = 1250
q = 50 mPa-sec
S = 0.543
Journal Design Example II
With S = 0.543, and L/D = 1.0, we can
once again chart to find
h
o
/c = 0.75
We are given c/r = .0008, and r = 12.5mm,
so c = .01mm.
Therefore, h
o
= .75*.01 = .008mm (part A)

Journal Design Example II
Next, to find the friction power loss, we can
use chart. We have S = .543, and L/D =
1.0. From that we can look up the
coefficient of friction variable
(r/c)*f = 11
Since c/r is given as .0008, f = .0088
Journal Design Example II
Knowing the coefficient of friction f, we can
then use equation to calculate the friction
torque, T
f
:
T
f
= fWr = .0088*1500*.0125 = .165 N-m
Then the friction power loss is found from
equation:
Power = T
f
*n/159
= (.165*16.67)/159 = .017 kW
Rolling Element Bearings

Rolling element, or anti-friction bearings,
make use of spherical or cylindrical rolling
elements captured between inner and
outer rings. The rolling elements support
the load, and transmit rotation by rolling,
rather than sliding.


Rolling Element Bearings
A major benefit of rolling versus sliding is
that the coefficient of friction is much
lower. Recall that for journal bearings
operating hydrodynamically,
0.002 < f < 0.010
For rolling element bearings,
0.001 < f < 0.002

Rolling Element Benefits
Observe that f is much more uniform. In
addition, f is much less a function of
rotational speed. This means that friction
power loss is more predictable, and
remains constant over a range of speeds.
Rolling element bearings also experience
much less wear at slower speeds than do
journal bearings.


Ball Bearings & Roller Bearings
There are two types of rolling element
bearings, ball bearings and roller bearings.

In general, ball bearings can operate at
higher speeds (but with less load), and
roller bearings operate at lower speeds but
with heavier loads. The difference is due
to point contact versus line contact.
Ball Bearings
There are many types of ball bearings:
deep-groove, double or triple row, angular
contact, thrust, cam followers, etc. Each is
best suited for a particular application.
For different types, there are series
numbers, usually in increasing order of
cross section (i.e., thicker rings, larger
spheres, etc.)
Ball Bearing Dimensions
Roller Bearings
The same situation exists with roller
bearings: there are single and double row,
removable inner or outer race, tapered or
straight rollers, thrust bearings, and
spherical bearings. Again, each is best
suited for a particular application.
Bearing Examples
Double row spherical bearing from the axis
of the earth: high load rating with angular
misalignment capability.
NU bearing, straight cylindrical rollers, for
radial loads only note translational ability
Light-weight single row ball bearing
Tapered roller bearing: common type of
automotive wheel bearing. Car example,
1.79 x 10
8
revolutions with no
maintenance.
Bearing Load & Life
There is a basic load rating associated
with each bearing. It is nominally the
radial load that a bearing can support for
10
6
revolutions. These numbers,
however, are for comparison purposes
only. In practice, the design load for most
bearings is only a few % of the basic load
rating.
Equivalent Radial Load
The basic load rating is given for purely
radial loads only. However, most bearings
need to support both radial and axial
loads.
Equations are used to calculate an
equivalent radial load given actual radial
and axial loads, and the geometry of the
design:

Equivalent Radial Load, P
P = XVF
r
+ YF
a
P = VF
r
(cyl. rollers, gen.)

F
r
= applied radial load
F
a
= applied axial load (thrust)
V = rotation factor, 1.0 for inner-ring rotation, 1.2
for outer-ring rotation
X = a radial factor
Y = a thrust factor
NOTE that straight cyl. roller bearings cannot
support much thrust.

Equivalent Load with Shock
P = K
s
(XVF
r
+ YF
a
)

P = K
s
VF
r


K
s
is a shock or service factor, find in
table. K
s
ranges from 1.0 to 3.0
depending on the type of bearing and the
service.
The L
10
Life
Bearing life is an important consideration
in many designs. The desired lifetime
could range from a few million to a few
billion revolutions. It doesnt take long for
1000 rpm running 24/7/365 to add up.
(0.5x10
9
)
The L
10
life refers to the expected life
(hours or revs) under a given load at which
90% of the bearings will survive.
L
10
Life in Revolutions
L
10
C
P
|

\
|
|
.
a
L
10
= life rating in 10
6
revolutions
C = basic load rating from manufacturer or Tables
10.3 and 10.4 NOTE difference between C and C
s
.
P = equivalent radial load
a = 3 for ball bearings or 10/3 for roller bearings.
L
10
Life in Hours
L
10
10
6
60n
C
P
|

\
|
|
.
a
L
10
= rating life in hours
n = rotational speed, rpm
L
5
and Beyond
The L
10
life is based on a 90% survival rate.
If the application requires higher reliability,
then a life adjustment [fudge] factor, K
r
, is
applied. K
r
is found in chart, and ranges from
1.0 (90% reliability) to 0.2 (99% reliability).
L
5
is the name given to any reliability >
90%.
L
5
K
r
C
P
|

\
|
|
.
a