Phy Notes Manhatten 2

Chapter 8
Motion Along a Straight Line

8.1 Position, Distance, Time and Speed
8.2 Recording Motion
8.3 Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration
8.4 Uniformly Accelerated Motion
Manhattan Press (H.K.) Ltd. © 2
001
Section 8.1
Position, Distance, Time
and Speed
• Position and distance
• Time
• Speed

001
8.1 Position, distance, time and speed (SB p.2) Position and distance
Position and distance

Tracy N
1 km
position of Tracy
Chris
1 km
position of Chris
Y
1 km 1 km
3 001
Position ： direction and distance from
the target place
N Shopping centre
1 km east
X from Chris:
Tracy X
direction: north
1 km distance: 1 km
1 km north
Shopping centre X
Chris
from Tracy:
direction: east
1 km distance: 1 km
Y
1 km 1 km
4 001

N
The position of
Tracy X church Y from
Chris:
1 km
direction = south-east
Chris distance = 2 km
　　 = 1.41 km
1 km
Y
1 km 1 km
5 001

N
Tracy The position of
X
church Y from Tracy:
1 km
direction = south-east
distance = 8 km
Chris 　　 = 2.83 km
1 km
Y
1 km 1 km
6 001
8.1 Position, distance, time and speed (SB p.3) Time
Time
Measure the duration of an event
Unit: second (s), minute (min), hour (h)
a sundial
a watch
a quartz clock an atomic clock

7 001
8.1 Position, distance, time and speed (SB p.4) Speed
Speed
Distance travelled
Average speed 
Time taken
Unit: m s–1 or km h–1
The world record for the men’s 100 m race

9.79 s
l00 m
100
Average speed = = 10.2 m s–1
9.79
8 001
Speed
Distance travelled
Average speed 
Time taken
If the time taken
is very short
Distance travelled
Instantaneous speed =
Time taken
e.g. speedometer of a car

measures its
instantaneous speed
9 001
Stations of the KCR Tai Po
Mongkok Tai Wai Fo Tan Market Fan Ling Lo Wu
Hunghom Kowloon Shatin University Tai Wo Sheung

Tong Shui
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Station 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Distance between
successive 2.42 1.80 4.50 1.10 2.00 1.80 6.70 1.15 6.25 1.50 3.50
stations / km
Time taken / min 3 2 4 2 2 3 6 2 5 2 4
From (4) Tai Wai to (5) Shatin

Distance travelled
Average speed =
Time taken
1.1 km
= = 9.2 m s–1
2 min
10 001
Class Practice 1 ： Referring to Table 8.1, find the
average speed of a KCR train for the whole journey from
(1) Hunghom to (12) Lo Wu. Express your answer in m s–1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Station
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Distance between
successive stations / 2.42 1.80 4.50 1.10 2.00 1.80 6.70 1.15 6.25 1.50 3.50
km
Time taken / min 3 2 4 2 2 3 6 2 5 2 4
Distance Distance travelled

travelled
speed  speed 
AverageAverage
Time taken Time taken
 2.42  1 　　　　　　　　　　 .15  6.25  1.5  3.5103
.8  4.5  1.1  2  1.8  6.7  1　　　　　　　　
 
 　　　　　　　　　　
 3  2  4  2  2  3  6  2 　　　　　　　　
 5  2  4   60 
327 20 m　　　　　　 
 s
2 100
 　　　　　　
-1
 Answer
 15.58 m s
11
001
Section 8.2
Recording Motion
• Ticker-tape timer
• Tape chart and speed-time graph
• Area under speed-time graph

001
8.2 Recording motion (SB p.6) Ticker-tape timer
Ticker-tape timer ─ Record a moving body

1. distance travelled
2. time taken
ticker-tape timers ticker-tape

13 001
Ticker-tape timer
1. Pass a long ticker-
timer tape through the timer
2. 50 black dots can be

marked in 1 s
(frequency = 50 Hz)
ticker-tape

14 001
Experiment 8A:
Motion analysis by ticker-tape timer
Intro. VCD
Expt. VCD

15 001
Ticker-tape timer
1
Time interval for 1-tick length = = 0.02 s
50
Time interval for 5-tick length = 0.02 x 5 = 0.1 s
5-tick length takes 0.1

1-tick length s

16 001
8.2 Recording motion (SB p.8) Tape chart and speed-time graph
Tape chart
Strip
length
(cm)
Time
1. Cut the tape into strips of 5-tick length
(Starting
point)
2. Stick the strips in order side by side
3. y-axis ─ strip length
x-axis ─ time
Strip length / cm
strip length
time
Time / s

17 001
Speed-time graph
1. y-axis ─ speed
Strip length 2. Join the mid-points of
Average speed = 0.1 s the tops of the strips
Tape chart Speed-time graph
Strip length / cm speed region I - increasing speed
Speed / cm s-1
region II - constant speed
region III - decreasing speed
mid-point
Time / s
Time / s

18 001
Speed-time graph
Speed / cm s-1 region I - increasing speed
region II - constant speed
region III - decreasing
speed is increasing speed
(changing-speed motion) speed is unchanged

(constant-speed motion)
speed is decreasing
(changing-speed motion)
Time / s

19 001
Class Practice 2 ： The tape results below record the

motions of two bodies X and Y.
Ｘ
Ｙ
Are bodies X and Y moving at constant speed or changing speed?
constant
X moves at a ____________ speed, and Y moves at a
constant
____________ speed.
double
Speed of X is ____________ (half / double) that of Y.
Answer
20 001
8.2 Recording motion (SB p.11) Area under speed-time graph
Area under speed-time graph
Speed Constant-speed
速率
motion
speed time
Distance ＝ Time  Speed
time → width of rectangle
speed → height of rectangle
Distance ＝ Width  Height
Distance ＝ Area of
rectangle 　
Time
時間

21 001
Area under speed-time graph
Speed Changing-speed
motion
Using the same principle:
　 Total distance
travelled by a
body 　
＝ Area under the graph
Time

22 001
Class Practice 3 ： A van and a lorry move at constant

speeds of 12 m s-1 and 18 m s-1 respectively in a time interval
of 15 s. Complete the speed-time graphs for the van and the
lorry in the given figure. Also find their distance travelled.
Speed
Speed//ms
m -1s-1
Distance travelled by the van speed of
the lorry
12  15 = 180 m
＝ ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ speed of
the van
Distance travelled by the lorry
18  15 = 270 m
＝ ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ Time
Time // ss
Answer
23 001
Section 8.3
Displacement, Velocity and
Acceleration
• Displacement and distance
• Velocity and speed
• Acceleration
• Motion graphs
• Scalar and vector quantities
001
8.3 Displacement, velocity and acceleration (SB p.13) Displacement
and distance
Displacement and distance
Displacement ─ change in position of a body
─ vector quantity, has both magnitude and
direction
direction direction
negative (–) positive (+)
ＡＯＢ

25 001
and distance
Displacement and distance
distance
displacement
distance displacement
length
length
depend on the independent of the

travelled path travelled path
26 001
and distance
Class Practice 4 ： Jessie starts from A and walks around
a square loop as shown below. She returns to A finally.
B 10 cm
C
10 cm
10 cm
A 10 cm
D
4 =10
Total distance travelled = ˍˍˍˍˍ ˍˍˍˍ 40 m
Total displacement = ˍˍˍˍˍˍ 0 m Answer

27 001
8.3 Displacement, velocity and acceleration (SB p.14) Velocity and speed
Velocity and speed
Displaceme nt
Velocity 
Time taken
s
v
t
directional, the same direction as position
Unit: m s-1
28 001
Velocity
70 km h-1 70 km h-1
speed 70 km h-1 70 km h-1

70 km h-1 (to left) 70 km h-1 (to right)
velocity
= -70 km h-1 = 70 km h-1
Take the direction to right as positive.
29 001
Class Practice 5 ： A man is running on a road. His
positions at different instants are shown in the figure below.
Complete the table, and take the direction to the right as
positive.
Answer
Time interval / s 0 - 5 5 - 10 10-20 20-30 30-40

Displacement / m 1
5 2
0 30 -4
0 -3
0
Average velocity / 15 20 30 40 30
3 4 3 4 3
m s-1 5 5 10 10 10
30 001
Class Practice 6 ： An ant takes 10 minutes to walk

from A to B along the path as shown in the figure.
(a) What are the distance travelled and the average speed of
the ant?
22 cm _
Distance travelled  __________
Average speed 
 　　　　　　0.22 
 　　　　　　
10 x 60 
　　　　　  __________
3.7 x 10-4 m __s–1
(b) What are the displacement and
the average velocity of the ant?
Displacement  2__________
cm (due north _ )
Average velocity 
　　　　　　  0.02
　　　　　　  10 x 60
　　　　　 3.3 x 10-5 m s__
__________ –1
(due north) Answer
31 001
8.3 Displacement, velocity and acceleration (SB p.17) Acceleration
Acceleration
Change of velocity
Acceleration 
Time taken
v u
a
t
Unit: m s-2

32 001
Acceleration
velocit
y
(i)　 From 0 s to10 s,

25  10
Average acceleration of the car (a)   2.5 m s2
10
33 001
Acceleration
(ii)　 From 10  20 s,
Average acceleration of the car (a)  25  25  0 m s2
10
34 001
Acceleration
(iii)　 20  40 s,
Average acceleration of the car (a)  0  25  1.25 m s2
20
Note: Deceleration = 1.25 m s-2
35 001
8.3 Displacement, velocity and acceleration (SB p.18) Motion graphs
Motion graphs
Displacement-time graph (s-t graph)
Displacement (s)
Slope
slope Change in displacement

Change in time
s

t
Time (t)
 Velocity (v )

36 001
Displacement-time graph
s
Slope  0
 Velocity  0 m s1

37 001
s
A Slope
　 A＞B
Velocity
B
vA ＞ vB

38 001
Slope increases
Velocity of body
increases
(accelerated motion)

39 001
Slope decreases
Velocity of body
decreases
(decelerated motion)

40 001
Class Practice 7 ： A car, which is at rest initially,

accelerates from t = 0 s to t = 4 s, and then decelerates
from t = 4 s to t = 8 s before it stops at t = 8 s. Sketch the
displacement-time graph of the car on the graph below.
acceleration deceleration
stop
Answer

41 001
Velocity-time graph (v-t graph)
Velocity (v)
Change in velocity
Slope 
slope Change in time
v

t
 Acceleration (a)
Time (t)

42 001
Velocity-time graph
Velocity (v)
Area under the graph
slope
Displacement of the
body
Time (t)

43 001
Velocity-time graph
Slope = 0
Acceleration = 0
The body is moving
at constant velocity

44 001
Velocity-time graph
Slope
A ＞ B
Acceleration
aA ＞ aB

45 001
Velocity-time graph
Slope increases
Acceleration of body
increases

46 001
Velocity-time graph
Slope decreases
the body is decelerating

47 001
Velocity-time graph
• O - A ─ accelerates (to the right)
• A - B ─ decelerates (to the right) and
stops at B
• B - C ─ accelerates (to the left)

48 001
Velocity-time graph
Area
• I ─ distance travelled to the right
• II ─ distance travelled to the left
• (I + II) ─ total distance travelled
• (I - II) ─ total displacement
49 001
Class Practice 8 ：
The v-t graph of a train is
shown in the figure.
 20  0 ＝ 0 .8 m s 2
(a) Find the accelerations of the train in different time intervals.
From 0 s to 25 s, a   　　　　　
From 0 s to 25 s, a  　
25  0 ＝　　　　　　 m s 2
 　　　　　 
FromFrom
25 s 25
tos75 s, a 
 20
  20　 ＝ 0 m s 2
to 75 s, a  　 
　　　　　
75 
 　　　　　25 
＝　　　　　　 m s 2
FromFrom75
75 s tos100 s, a   　
0  20 
　　　　　＝  0 .8 m s 2
to 100 s, a  100  75 ＝　　　　　　 m s 2
Answer
　　　　　　
50 001
Class Practice 8 (Cont’d)
distance travelled  75  25

(b) Total distance travelled  __________
(b) Total
  100 ___
__________ 20________
1 500 m
Total displacement  __________________ 2_____________
Total displacement  Total distance travelled  1 500 m
Answer

51 001
Class Practice 9 ： The figure shows the velocity-
time graphs of two cars A and B. When a traffic light turns
red, both the drivers apply their brakes and stop their cars
within the same time interval. Compare the deceleration and
stopping distance of the cars.
uniform
Car A is braking with __________
(uniform / increasing / decreasing)
deceleration, while car B is braking with
increasing
__________ deceleration.
The stopping distance of car A is
shorter
____________ (longer / shorter) than
that of car B because
the area covered by the v-t graph for car A Answer
________________________________.
is smaller than that for car B.
52 001
Acceleration-time graph (a-t graph)
constant velocity
acceleration = 0

53 001
Acceleration-time graph
uniform
acceleration

54 001
Acceleration-time graph
uniform
deceleration

55 001
Class Practice 10 ： The velocity-time graph of a car is

shown in Fig. a. Complete its acceleration-time graph in Fig. b.
Fig. a Fig. b
Answer
56 001
8.3 Displacement, velocity and acceleration (SB p.26) Scalar and vector
quantities
Scalar ─ has magnitude, but no direction

Vector ─ has magnitude and direction
(scalar) e.g. time, distance, speed

(vector) e.g. displacement, velocity and
acceleration

57 001
Section 8.4
Uniformly Accelerated Motion
• Equations of motion
• Acceleration down an inclined plane
• Acceleration due to gravity (g)

001
8.4 Uniformly accelerated motion (SB p.26) Equations of motion
Equations of uniformly
accelerated motion
Time 0 t
Velocity u v
Uniform accel a
eration

59 001
accelerated motion
Velocity
Area of region I  area of region II
displacement
 area under the curve AB
 area under the dotted line CD
 u  v t
2
s  u  v  t ... ... (1)
2
Time

60 001
accelerated motion
Velocity
Acceleration  slope of AB
a v  u
t
v  u  at ... ... (2)
Time

61 001
accelerated motion
Velocity
From (1), we have

u v
s t
2
2s  (u  v ) t
t 2s ... ... (a)
u v
Time

62 001
accelerated motion
Substitute (a ) into (2),
Velocity
 2s 
v  u  a  

u v 
v  u  2as
u v
v u  2as
u v
v 2  u 2  2as
Time v 2  u 2  2as ... ... (3)

63 001
accelerated motion
Velocity
From (1),
s u  v t
2
s 2 t
u v
t  2s ... ... (b)
u v
Time

64 001
accelerated motion
Velocity
From (b ), we have
 2s 

 t  u   u  at
 
2s  2u  at
t
1
s  ut  at 2 ... ... (4)
2
Time

65 001
accelerated motion
v = u + at
v2 = u2 + 2as
s = ut + ½ at2
u — initial velocity
v — final velocity
s — displacement
a — acceleration
t — time
66 001
The sign of the quantities
negative positive

67 001
Class Practice 11 ： A car is moving at a velocity of

70 km h-1. The driver then sees a 50 km h-1 speed limit sign at
a distance of 30 m ahead. In order not to exceed the speed
limit, find the minimum deceleration of the car.
70 1000
u = 70
______
km h = __________ = __ ___
–1 19.44
___m s–1
3600
501000
v = 50
______
km h –1 = __________ = _____ ___m s–1
13.89
3600
s = ______ 30 m
By v2 = u2 + 2as
13.89
( _______ 19.44
)2 = (_______ 30 )
)2 + 2a ( _______
 a = _________
-3 m s –2
3 m s–2
The minimum deceleration of the car is __________. Answer
68 001
8.4 Uniformly accelerated motion (SB p.28) Acceleration down
an inclined plane
Experiment 8B:
Acceleration down an inclined runway
Expt. VCD

69 001
an inclined plane
Acceleration down an inclined plane

Velocity / cm s-1 v
Time / s

70 001
an inclined plane

Initial velocity of the trolley (u)
= Average velocity in 1st strip
= 5 cm s–1
5 cm u = 0.05 m s –1

71 001
an inclined plane
Final velocity of the trolley (v)
= Average velocity in 13th strip
= 70 cm s–1
= 0.7 m s–1
70 cm v

72 001
an inclined plane
length
Time interval (t)

= (13 - 1)  0.1
1.2 s
= 1.2 s
t
73 001
an inclined plane
The acceleration of the trolley

v u
a
t
0.7  0.05

1.2
 a  0.54 m s  2

74 001
an inclined plane
If the slope of the inclined plane increases
, acceleration will increase.
Velocity / cm s-1
(steep slope)
(gentle slope)
Time / s

75 001
an inclined plane
Class Practice 12 ： The tape chart given records the
motion of a trolley down an inclined plane. Find the
acceleration of the trolley.
Initial velocity (u ) 
 　　　　　　
0.5 cm 
 　　　　　　
0.1 s  Length / cm
　 0.05
 __________ m s-1
Final velocity (v ) 
 4 cm
　　　　　　 
0.1 s
 　　　　　　 
0.4 m s -1
 __________
Time interval from the 1st strip to
the 11th strip (t ) Time / s
t  __________  0.1 = 1 s
(11 - 1)__________ _
v u
a 
t Answer
0.4  0.05 0.35 m s
 　　　　　　　　   ________________
-2
 1
 　　　　　　　　 
76 001
8.4 Uniformly accelerated motion (SB p.31) Acceleration due to gravity (g)
Acceleration due to gravity (g)

attraction of the
earth’s gravity
acceleration tow
ards the earth
acceleration due t
o gravity (g)
77 001
Experiment 8C ：
Motion of a free falling object
Expt. VCD

78 001

Length / cm The time taken for
Length of
12th strip
each 2 - tick length
= 17.5 cm
 0.02  2
 0.04 s
0.7
Initial velocity (u ) 
0.04
 17.5 cm s1
17.5
Final velocity (v ) 
Length of
0.04
1st strip =
0.7 cm
Time /
s  437.5 cm s1
79 001
Time interval (t )  (12 - 1) x 0.04

 0.44 s
v u
Acceleration due to gravity (g ) 
t
437.5  17.5

0.44
 955 cm s2
 9.55 m s2
80 001
Class Practice 13 ： A ball is thrown vertically upwards at

an initial velocity of 100 m s-1.
(a) Complete the following table (take the downward
direction as positive). Note that t is the time elapsed, s is
the displacement of the ball, and v is the velocity of the
ball.
t/st/s 2 2 8 8 10 10 15
15 20 20
s / ms / m -180 -480 -500 375 0
v / -1m s-1
v/ms -80 -20 0 50 100
Direction
Direction
of motion upwards upwards at rest downwards downwards
of motion
Answer
81 001
(b) Sketch the positions of the ball at t = 2 s, 8 s, 10 s, 15 s an

d 20 s in the following figure. Use a scale of 1 cm to repres
ent 100 m in height.
Answer
82 001
Experiment 8D ：
The “coin and feather” experiment
Expt. VCD

83 001
coin
feather
fall in air fall in vacuum

84 001
gravitational force
air resistance
fall in air fall in vacuum

85 001
Chapter 9
Inertia, Force and Motion
9.1 Forces, Mass and Weight

9.2 Types of Forces
9.3 Vector Addition and Resolution of
Forces
9.4 Newton’s First Law of Motion
9.5 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
9.6 Force Diagrams
9.7 Pressure
001
Section 9.1
Forces, Mass and Weight
• Mass and weight

001
9.1 Forces, mass and weight (SB p.50) Mass and weight
Force ─ cause an object start moving,

stop moving,
change its direction
of motion
Unit: newton (N)
stop motion
start motion
or

88 001
a measure of the quantity

Mass (m) ─
of matters inside a body
Weight (W) ─
• Unit: kilogram (kg)
• Scalar quantity
• Measured by
beam balances

89 001
Mass (m) ─ a measure of the quantity

of matters inside a body
Weight (W) ─ a measure of the attraction o
n a body towards the earth
• Unit: newton (N)
• Vector quantity
• Measured by
spring balances
On the earth
1 kg 1N

90 001
Differences between mass and weight

Mass Weight
Unit kg N
Physical quantity scalar vector
Measuring tool beam spring

balance balance

91 001
Section 9.2
Types of Forces
• Tension
• Friction

001
9.2 Types of forces (SB p.52) Tension
Tension (T)
tension in a
stretched string

93 001
9.2 Types of forces (SB p.53) Friction
Friction ( f ) ─ arises whenever an object

slides or tends to slide over another object
Reason: rough surfaces
book
The direction is
opposite to the motion
direction of motion
friction
table

94 001
Application of friction
tread patterns on tyres
shoes with studs
rough road surface

95 001
Disadvantage of friction
• Waste energy in movable parts of machines

• Waste as heat
• Waste as sound
• Cause wear in gears

96 001
Experiment 9A ：
Frictionless motion
Intro. VCD
Expt. VCD

97 001
Frictionless motion
turn on
air blower
air comes out
from tiny
holes rider
rider floats on the layer of air
rider moves to and fro

several times linear air
track

98 001
Frictionless motion
plastic beads
ring puck
reduce friction between
the ring puck and the
tray
ring puck moves on the a layer of beads

plastic beads
continuously

99 001
Ways to reduce friction

1. Bearings
ball
wheel
bearings
wheel
axle axle
roller bearings

100 001
2. Lubricating oil

101 001

3. Air cushion 4. Streamlining

102 001
Section 9.3
Vector Addition and Resolution of Forces
• Vector addition of forces

• Resolution of forces

001
9.3 Vector addition and resolution of forces (SB p.58) Vector addition
Vector addition of forces of forces
─ adding several forces

─ sum of forces is called resultant force (FR)
Forces on the same line
F1 F2 F2 F1
F R = F1 + F 2 FR = F1 - F2

104 001
Forces at angle  of forces
Experiment 9B ： Vector addition of forces

Expt. VCD

105 001
of forces
1. Tip-to-tail method
F1 FR
X F1
F2 X
F2

106 001
of forces
2. Parallelogram method
F1 FR
F1
X
F2 X
F2

107 001
of forces
If F1 and F2 are perpendicular to each other
F1
FR or FR
F1
 
F2 F2
FR =  F12 + F22
F1
tan  =
F2
108 001
of forces
Class Practice 1 ： Find the resultant force (FR) as shown in
the figure on the right.
(5 - 2)2 + 42
Magnitude of FR ＝ ˍˍˍˍˍˍ
5N
　　　　　＝ ˍˍˍˍˍˍ
tan-1 (4 / 3)
Direction of FR( ) ＝ ˍˍˍˍˍ
　　　　　　＝ ˍˍˍˍˍ 53o
Resultant force (FR) = ________________
5 N (N 530 E)
Answer
109 001
9.3 Vector addition and resolution of forces (SB p.62) Resolution of forces
Resolution of forces
─ a force is resolved into two components
Fx = F cos 
Fy = F sin 
tan  = Fy
Fx
110 001
Section 9.4
Newton’s First Law of Motion
• Aristotle’s ideas concerning force

and motion
• Galileo’s thought experiment
• Inertia
• Newton’s first law of motion
• Inertia and mass
001
9.4 Newton’s first law of motion (SB p.63) Aristotle’s ideas concerning
force and motion
Aristotle’s ideas concerning force
and motion
The Greek philosopher Aristotle proposed that for
a body to move, a force must be applied to it.

112 001
9.4 Newton’s first law of motion (SB p.64) Galileo’s thought experiment
Aristotle’s deduction was turned down by Galileo Galilei
Galileo’s thought experiment

clamp
(“pin-and-pendulum”
experiment) end
star
t
pendulum
bob

113 001
The “pin-and-pendulum” experiment

─ the bob reaches the height as before
pin

114 001
Experiment 9C ：
Galileo’s thought experiment
Expt. VCD C

115 001
9.4 Newton’s first law of motion (SB p.66) Inertia
Inertia ─ a measure of the tendency for a

body to remain at rest or to move
at a uniform velocity
uniform velocity at rest

motion
or

116 001
9.4 Newton’s first law of motion (SB p.66) Inertia
Experiment 9D ： Tricks with inertia
Expt. VCD

117 001
9.4 Newton’s first law of motion (SB p.68) Newton’s first law of motion
Newton’s first law of motion
If there is no net force acting on a body
a body will remain in its state of
motion (either at rest, or moving at
a uniform velocity)
uniform velocity at rest

motion
or

118 001
Seat belt ─ reduce the force of throwing
forwards
two points seat belt three points seat belt
Two types of seat belt

119 001
Head rest ─ prevent the neck from
bending backwards

120 001
9.4 Newton’s first law of motion (SB p.70) Inertia and mass
Inertia and mass

Greater mass of the ball
Greater the inertia

121 001
Section 9.5
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
• Friction-compensated runway
• Acceleration and force
• Acceleration and mass
• Newton’s second law of motion
• Gravitational pull

001
9.5 Newton’s second law of motion (SB p.71) Friction-compensated runway
Friction-compensated runway
(a sloping runway)
If friction = mg sin  (friction-compensated)
Trolley moves down at a uniform speed (indicated
by the evenly distribution of the dots on the tape)
friction
mg sin 

The dots on the
tape are evenly
distributed
123 001
9.5 Newton’s second law of motion (SB p.72) Acceleration and force
Experiment 9E ：
Acceleration and force
Expt. VCD

124 001
Acceleration and force

Force (F) / number
1 2 3
of elastic cords
Acceleration of
0.3 0.6 0.9
trolley (a) / m s-2
Acceleration / m s-2
Acceleration  No. of elastic cords
Acceleration  Force applied on
the trolley
aF
Force / number
of elastic cords

125 001
Class Practice 2 ： Complete the following table for a

trolley being pulled by different numbers of elastic cords
down a friction-compensated runway.
Force (F) / number of 1 2 3 4

elastic cords
Acceleration of trolley (a) / 0.2
m s-2 0.6 0.8
0.4
Answer

126 001
9.5 Newton’s second law of motion (SB p.73) Acceleration and mass
Experiment 9F ：
Acceleration and mass
Expt. VCD

127 001
Acceleration and mass

Mass of trolley (m) / kg 1 2 3
1 1
( )/kg1 1 0.5 0.33
mass of trolleys m
Acceleration (a) / m s-2 0.6 0.3 0.2

Acceleration / ms-2
1
acceleration 
mass of trolleys
1
a
m
1 1
/kg
mass of trolleys
128 001
Class Practice 3: Complete the following table for

trolleys of different masses being pulled by a constant force
down a friction-compensated runway.
1/m
For a constant force, a  _____________.
Mass of trolleys 1 2 3 4
(m) / kg
Acceleration of 0.3
trolley (a) / m s-2 0.075
0.15 0.1
Answer

129 001
9.5 Newton’s second law of motion (SB p.75) Newton’s second law of motion
Newton’s second law of motion
unbalanced force
at rest (net force)
force acceleration
or

130 001
9.5 Newton’s second law of motion (SB p.76) Newton’s second law of motion
Newton’s second law of motion

Acceleration (a)  Net force (F)
Acceleration (a)  1
m
Fma
F = ma
Unit: newton (N)
Note: Direction of a = Direction of F

131 001
9.5 Newton’s second law of motion (SB p.76) Gravitational pull
Gravitational pull
Weight (W) ─ gravitational pull of the earth
on a body
F = ma = mg (g is the acceleration
due to gravity)
W = mg
m = 0.8 kg 38 kg 5 000 kg
W= 8N 380 N 50 000 N
132 001
Gravitational pull
g differs with positions from the earth
the
gravitational
force
decreases
as the
distance
from the
earth
increases

133 001
Different gravitational acceleration on

different planets
Gravitational acceleration
Place Mass (m) / kg Weight (W = mg) / N
(g) / m s -2
Earth 10 100
Moon 10 1 of earth 16.7

= 1.67
6
Venus 9 90
of earth = 9
10
Jupiter 2.6 of earth = 26 260

134 001
Section 9.6
Force Diagrams
• Motion on an inclined plane

• Bodies connected by string
• Weightlessness

001
9.6 Force diagrams (SB p.78) Motion on an inclined plane
Motion on an inclined plane

1. Forces parallel to the plane (Wx and f )
Wx = f
( R )
n
re ac tio The block is at rest
tion n (f)
m o tio
n of fric
ec tio
dir

136 001

1. Forces parallel to the plane (Wx and f )
Wx > f
(R)
ion
rea
c t The block slides
on (f)
down the plane
ti tion
of mo fric
tio n
i re c Force acting
d
on the body (F )  ma
mg sin θ  f  ma
mg sin θ  f
a
m
137 001

2. Forces perpendicular to the plane (Wy and f )
R = Wy
(R)
ion
rea
c t = mg cos 
tion n (f) No motion
m o tio
n of fric
e c tio
di r
Note: R is called the

reaction

138 001
Class Practice 4 ： Find the unknown forces (W and
Wy) in the figure.
Wx = W sin 25º
15 / sin 25o
W = ____________
= ____________ 35.5 N
W cos
Wy = ____________
25o
= ____________
32.2 N
Answer

139 001
Class Practice 5: A trolley of mass 1 kg runs down a

runway with an acceleration of 0.2 m s-2 as shown in the figure.
(a) Find the friction acting on the trolley.
mg sin   f  ma
1 x 10 x sin 25o
1 x 0.2
___________  f  ___________
4.03 N
f  ___________ N
Answer

140 001

(b) Find the perpendicular force exerted o
n the trolley by the runway.
mg cos 
R = ________________
= 1 x 10 x cos
________________25 o
= ________________
9.06 N
Answer

141 001
9.6 Force diagrams (SB p.81) Bodies connected by string
Bodies connected by string
1. Forces perpendicular to the plane

a
Consider m1 R 1 = m 1g
Consider m2 R 2 = m 2g

142 001
2. Forces parallel to the plane

R1 R2
m1 g m2 g a
Consider m1 T = m 1a
Consider m2 F - T = m2 a

143 001
Two or more connected bodies:
consider as a whole system
a
m1 + m2 + m3
F = (m1 + m2 + m3) a

144 001
9.6 Force diagrams (SB p.83) Weightlessness
Weightlessness
R R = supporting force o
n the boy
620N mg = weight of the boy
= 620 N
mg
145 001
1. The lift is accelerating upwards with

a = 1.4 m s-2
F  ma
R R  mg  ma
a = 1.4 m s-2 R  m  g  a
707N R  62  10  1.4 
R  707 N
mg
146 001
2. The lift is at rest, moving upwards or
downwards at constant velocity
F  ma
R R  mg  0
a=0 R  mg
620N R  62  10
R  620 N
mg
147 001
3. The lift is accelerating downwards with

a = 1.4 m s-2
F  ma
R mg  R  ma
a = 1.4 m s-2 R  mg  ma
533N R  62  10  14 
R  533 N
mg
148 001
4. The lift falls freely with a = 10 m s-2
F  ma
R
a = 10 m s-2
mg  R  ma
R  mg  ma
0N R  mg  mg
R0
weightlessness
Note: the actual weight
F of the boy does not
change, only his feeling
of weight changes
mg
149 001
When a lift is moving upwards with increasing acceleration,
the supporting force on the passenger ____________
increases
(increases / does not change / decreases).
When the lift is moving downwards with increasing

acceleration, the supporting force on the passenger
_____________ (increases / does not change / decreases).
decreases
When the lift falls freely under gravity, the supporting force
would become __________.
zero
Answer

150 001
Section 9.7
Pressure

001
9.7 Pressure (SB p.86)
Pressure
Force perpendicular to an area
Pressure 
Area force perpendicular
F to an area
P
A
F area
Unit: pascal (Pa)
A

152 001
Applications of pressure P= F
A
A P
A
A
A
153 001
Without skis
Pressure
500
 4
100  10
 50 kPa
500 N
100 cm2

154 001
With skis
Pressure
500
 4
500  10
 10 kPa
500 N
500 cm2

155 001
Vehicles with greater surface area reduce
pressure
A
A
F
P=
A
A
A P
156 001
(a) A large box of mass 10 kg is resting on a floor as shown
below. Find the pressure exerted on the floor in each case
. 10 x 10 = 100 N
Weight of the box = _________N
0.25 x 1 0.25 m2
In Fig. a, area of the base = ___________
100 = __________ m2
400 Pa
0.25
P = ____________ = ___________ Pa
Answer

157 001
Class Practice 7 (Cont’d) ：

(a) 0.5 x 1 0.5 m2
In Fig. b, area of the base = ________ = ______m2
P= 100 = Pa
200 Pa
0.5

158 001

(b) Account for the difference in pressure found in (a).
If the base area is larger, the pressure exerted on the floor is _

smaller
___________ (larger / smaller).
Answer

159 001
Chapter 10
Momentum
10.1 Momentum
10.2 Momentum Change, Impulsive Force
and Impulse
10.3 Conservation of Momentum
10.4 Newton’s Third Law of Motion

001
Section 10.1
Momentum

001
10.1 Momentum (SB p.106)
Momentum
Momentum = Mass  Velocity
p =mv
Unit: kg m s-1 or N s
vector quantity
mass (m) velocity (v)

162 001
Momentum of trolley A
= mAvA
=23
= 6 kg m s-1 (to the right)

163 001
Momentum of trolley B
= mBvB
= 2  (-4)
= -8 kg m s-1 (to the left)

164 001
Class Practice 1 ： A jet plane of mass 50 000 kg travels

at a velocity of 250 m s-1 towards east.
(a) When the jet plane is moving at the velocity of 250 m s-1,
Velocity ＝ ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ 250 m s -1
(due east)
Momentum ＝ m  v
50 000 x 250
　　＝ ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ
　　＝ ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ 1.25 x 107 kg m s-1 (due east)
(b) After the jet plane has landed on an airport,
Velocity ＝ ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ 0 m s-1
Answer
Momentum ＝ ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ 0 kg m s -1

165 001
Momentum Change, Impulsive
Force and 10.2
Section Impulse
• Momentum change
• Impulsive force
• Impulse

001
10.2 Momentum change, impulsive force and impulse (SB p.107) Momentum
change
Momentum change
Before collision ： momentum (pi) = mu

After collision ： momentum (pf) = mv
Momentum change = mv - mu

167 001
10.2 Momentum change, impulsive force and impulse (SB p.107) Impulsive
force
Impulsive force (F)
─ unbalanced force acting on the ball
during the collision with the wall
Unit: newton (N)

168 001
Impulsive force force
F  ma ... ... (1)　　  Newton' s second law of motion

Substitute a 
 v  u  into (1),
t
 
F  m v  u  mv  mu
t t
Impulsive force  Rate of change
u of momentum
F mv  mu
F t

169 001
force
Impulsive force can deform a body’s shape

170 001
force
A driver without wearing a seat belt
(time of impact = 0.05 s)
Impulsive force
on the driver (F )
u = 30 m s-1 v = 0 m s-1  m   v  u 
t
 60   0  30 
0.05
 36 000 N

171 001
force
A driver wearing a seat belt
(time of impact =1 s)
Impulsive force
on the driver (F )
u = 30 m s-1 v = 0 m s-1  m   v  u 
t
 60   0  30 
1
 1 800 N

172 001
force
A driver wearing a seat belt
F  mv  mu
t
time of impact
increases ( t  )
impulsive force reduces

( F )
chance of suffering
air bag
serious injuries
decreases
173 001
force
Safety designs of cars
bumper

174 001
10.2 Momentum change, impulsive force and impulse (SB p.110) Impulse
Impulse
Impulse  Impulsive force (F )  Time of impact (t )

 mv  mv t
t
Ft  mv  mu
 change in momentum
Impulse is a vector quantity
Unit: N s or kg m s-1

175 001
10.2 Momentum change, impulsive force and impulse (SB p.111) Impulse
Class Practice 2 ： Find the impulse of the tennis ball in

Example 1.
Impulse = Change in momentum

-200  0.0145
　　　　　 = ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ
-2.9
　　　　　 = ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ N s
Answer

176 001
Section 10.3
Conservation of Momentum
• Elastic collision
• Inelastic collision
• Explosion of trolleys
• Recoil speed
• Apparent non-conservation of
momentum
001
10.3 Conservation of momentum (SB p.111) Elastic collision
Elastic collision
─ two bodies separate after collision

178 001
Experiment 10A ：
Elastic collision of trolleys
Intro. VCD
Expt. VCD

179 001
Elastic collision
One trolley colliding with one trolley
uA
mA = 1 kg mB = 1 kg

180 001
Elastic collision
Two trolleys colliding with one trolley
uA
mA = 2 kg mB = 1 kg

181 001
Elastic collision
Three trolleys colliding with one trolley
uA
mA = 3 kg mB = 1 kg

182 001
Elastic collision
Mass / kg Before collision After collision
Initial Total Total
Final velocity
velocity momentum -1 momentum
/ms
/ m s-1 / kg m s-1 / kg m s-1
mA mB uA uB mAuA+mBuB vA vB mAvA+mBvB
1 1 0.2 0 0.2 0 0.19 0.19
2 1 0.25 0 0.5 0.085 0.33 0.5
3 1 0.3 0 0.9 0.15 0.44 0.89
Total momentum before collision

= Total momentum after collision
In an elastic collision, momentum is conserved
183 001
10.3 Conservation of momentum (SB p.114) Inelastic collision
Inelastic collision
Experiment 10B ：
Inelastic collision of trolleys
Expt. VCD

184 001
Inelastic collision
─ two bodies stick together after collision
Mass / kg Before collision After collision
Initial Total Total
Final velocity
velocity momentum -1 momentum
-1 -1 /ms
/ms / kg m s / kg m s-1
mA mB uA uB mAuA+mBuB vA vB mAvA+mBvB
1 1 0.23 0 0.23 0.12 0.12 0.24
2 1 0.35 0 0.7 0.23 0.23 0.69
1 2 0.28 0 0.28 0.095 0.095 0.285

In an inelastic collision, momentum is conserved
185 001
Law of conservation of momentum
When there are no external forces,

mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mBvB

186 001
Class Practice 3 ： Referring to part (a) of Example 2,

2  3 + 1  (-2)
Total momentum before collision = ˍˍˍˍˍˍ
　　　　　　　　　　 4
= ˍˍˍˍˍˍ kg m s -1
Total momentum after collision = ˍˍˍˍˍˍ 21+12

　　　　　　　　　　 = ˍˍˍˍˍˍ
4 kg m s-1
　　　　 Answer

187 001
Change in momentum of trolley A

mAvA - mAuA
= ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ
= ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ 2 x 1 - 2 x 3 = -4 kg m s-1
Change in momentum of trolley B

mBvB - mBuB
= ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ
1 x 2 - 1 x (-2) = 4 kg m s-1
= ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ
Answer

188 001
10.3 Conservation of momentum (SB p.118) Explosion of trolleys
Explosion of trolleys
─ separation of objects into two parts or more
cork
bottle

189 001
plunger
adhesive
tape
small stick button

to fix the
tape on
the trolley
Before explosion
Total momentum = mAuA + mBuB
　　　　 = 0 kg m s-1

190 001
It obeys law of conservation of momentum
After explosion
Total momentum = mAvA + mBvB
　　　　 = 1  (-0.5) + 1  0.5
= 0 kg m s-1
191 001
10.3 Conservation of momentum (SB p.119) Recoil speed
Recoil speed ─ cannons or rifles move

backwards when they are fired

192 001
Firing a cannon ball

at rest after firing

193 001
Law of conservation of momentum

Total momentum after firing  Total momentum
before firing
Momentum of the ball  Momentum of the cannon  0
mv  MV  0
V   mv
M
Mass of cannon (M) >> Mass of ball (m)
Recoil speed of cannon (V) << Recoil speed of ball (v)

194 001
10.3 Conservation of momentum (SB p.121)
Apparent non-conservation of
Apparent non-conservation of momentum
momentum
m2
When a boy runs forwards,
does the earth remains at
rest?
m1
Mass of the boy
<< Mass of the earth
m2 << m1
The movement of the earth
is unnoticeable

195 001
Section 10.4
Newton’s Third Law of Motion
• Action and reaction pair

• Tug-of-war
• Example of Newton’s third law
• False examples of Newton’s
third law

001
10.4 Newton’s third law of motion (SB p.122) Action and reaction pair
Action and reaction pair

Experiment 10C ： Action and reaction
Expt. VCD

197 001
Action ─ the force (f) acting on the cardboard
by the wheels of the car
─ pushes the cardboard moving to the right
Reaction ─ the force (f ’) acting on the wheels
by the cardboard
─ pushes the car moving to the left
motion of toy car
motion of
cardboard
cardboard

198 001
Newton’s third law of motion
Action and reaction are equal in

magnitude but opposite in direction
FA = FB

199 001
10.4 Newton’s third law of motion (SB p.124) Tug-of-war
Tug-of-war
T = T’ , who will win?
internal force
T = T’
f f’
Determined by f and f ’ (external force)
200 001
10.4 Newton’s third law of motion (SB p.124) Example of Newton’s third law
Examples of Newton’s third law

1. Sprinter and starting block
F ─ action
F’ ─ reaction
F F’

201 001
10.4 Newton’s third law of motion (SB p.125) Example of Newton’s third law
Examples of Newton’s third law

2. Stepping off a boat 3. Rocket and jet
propulsion
F’ F
F’
F
F ─ action
F’ ─ reaction

202 001
10.4 Newton’s third law of motion (SB p.127) False examples of
Newton’s third law
False examples of Newton’s third law
Are the weight of Jessie
and the supporting force by
the chair an action and
reaction pair?
balanced

weight
forces Action and reaction
– equal in magnitude （）
supporting
force – opposite in direction （）
– act on two objects （）

203 001
Are the force acting on the

chair by Jessie and force
acting on Jessie by chair an
force acting on action and reaction pair?
action and Jessie by chair
Action and reaction

reaction
– equal in magnitude （）
force acting on – opposite in direction （）
chair by Jessie – act on two objects （）

204 001
Are the force acting on the

earth by Jessie and force
acting on Jessie by the earth
force acting an action and reaction pair?
on Jessie by
action and the earth

reaction
Action and reaction
force acting – equal in magnitude （）
on the earth
by Jessie – opposite in direction （）
– act on two objects （）

205 001
Chapter 11
Work, Energy and Power
11.1 Work
11.2 Different Forms of Energy
11.3 Conversion of Potential Energy
and Kinetic Energy
11.4 Non-conservation of
Mechanical Energy
11.5 Power
001
Section 11.1
Work
• Work done

001
11.1 Work (SB p.137)
Work is done when a force is applied on

an object
force
displacement

208 001
11.1 Work (SB p.138) Work done
Work done
Work done ＝ Applied force  Displacement

W ＝ Fs
The applied force is parallel to the displacement
F F
Unit: J (joule) or N m
209 001
Work done
Work done (W) = Fs cos 
F F
F F
 
F cos F cos

210 001
Class Practice 1 ： Calculate the work done on the

suitcase in each of the following cases. A force of 60 N is applied
and the suitcase moves through a distance of 10 m in each case.
(a) The force is applied in the same direction as the motion of
the suitcase.
Fxs
W = ˍˍˍˍˍˍ
60 x 10
　 = ˍˍˍˍˍˍ
= ˍˍˍˍˍˍ 600 J
Answer

211 001
(b) The force is applied at an angle of 30o to the direction of

motion of the suitcase.
W= ˍˍˍˍˍˍ F s cos 
　 = ˍˍˍˍˍˍ 60 x 10 x cos 30o
= ˍˍˍˍˍˍ 520 J
Answer

212 001
No work is done when:

1. moving with inertia
2. the body is stationary
3. the direction of motion of the body is
perpendicular to that of the applied force
1.2. 3.
uniform velocity mg
mg

213 001
Section 11.2
Different Forms of Energy
• Potential energy
• Kinetic energy
• Other forms of energy

001
11.2 Different forms of energy (SB p.140)
Energy ─ capacity to do work

Unit: joule (J)
1 kilojoule （ 1 kJ ）＝ 1 000 J
＝ 103 J
1 megajoule （ 1 MJ ）＝ 1 000 000 J
＝ 106 J
Mechanical energy ─ potential energy and

kinetic energy

215 001
11.2 Different forms of energy (SB p.141) Potential energy
Potential energy
─ gravitational potential energy and
elastic potential energy
Gravitational potential energy
─ work done on the object by gravitational pull
Work done on the object
=Fs
= mgh
h = change in potential
energy of the object 　
Potential energy (P.E.) = mgh
216 001
Potential energy (P.E.)
P.E. of the object at hf = mgh

P.E. of the object at hi = 0
hf
Gain in P.E. =
mgh 　　　　
h
hi

217 001
Potential energy is independent of the

path taken
h mgh mgh

218 001
Potential energy depends on the
reference level
Reference level ： 1. The ground
Book Potential Potential

hA energy energy
A mAghA 18.9 J
hB hC B mBghB 1.4 J
C mCghC 9.1 J
hD
the
D mDghD 1.75 J
hE
ground E mEghE 0J

219 001
Reference level ： 2. Book D
Book Potential Potential

energy energy
hA A mAghA 12.6 J
B mBghB 0.7 J
hB hC
C mCghC 4.55 J
hD
D mDghD 0J
hE the E mEghE -6.3 J
ground
Note: The difference in P.E. of two books is

the same for different reference levels.
220 001
Elastic potential energy
bow
trampoline

221 001
11.2 Different forms of energy (SB p.143) Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy ─ a body possesses K.E. when
moving
2
By　v  u 2  2as Potential energy (K.E.)  F  s
v2
a mv 2
2s 
　F  ma 2
2 K.E. = 1 mv2
mv
F  2
2s
u = 0 m s-1 v
F F

222 001
11.2 Different forms of energy (SB p.145) Kinetic energy
Class Practice 2 ： A stationary golf ball of mass 0.25 kg

is struck with a force of 200 N. If the club is in contact with the
ball for a distance of 1 cm, find the speed of the ball when it
leaves the club.
Work = Change in kinetic energy
1 2
Fs= mv
2
(2 x F x s) / m
v= ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ
(2 x 200 x 0.01) / 0.25
= ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ
 v= ˍˍˍˍˍˍm s-1 4
Answer
The speed of the golf ball is ˍˍˍ. 4 m s-1

223 001
11.2 Different forms of energy (SB p.145) Other forms of energy
Other forms of energy
wind energy
solar energy

224 001
11.2 Different forms of energy (SB p.146) Other forms of energy
Other forms of energy
nuclear energy
tidal energy

225 001
Section 11.3
Conversion of Potential Energy
and Kinetic Energy
• Conservation of energy
• Energy conversion in free falling motion
• Energy conversion in pendulum motion
• Energy conversion in elastic collision

001
11.3 Conversion of potential energy and kinetic energy (SB p.146)
Conservation of energy
Conservation of energy
─ energy cannot be created or destroyed, but
can transform from one form to another
light, heat and other
forms of energy

potential
energy of
water
electrical energy
kinetic energy
of Manhattan Press (H.K.) Ltd. © 2
227turbines 001
Energy conversion in free falling motion
Loss in P.E.
= Weight  Distance
u=0 = mgs
v2 = u2 + 2as
v2 = 2gs
v
(½m) v2 = (½m) 2gs
½mv2 = mgs
Gain in K.E. = Loss in P.E.
Note: K.E. + P.E. = constant
228 001
potential
When a body is falling freely, its ____________ (kinetic /
potential / mechanical) energy decreases and its

kinetic mechanical
____________ energy increases. However, its ____________
energy remains unchanged.
Answer

229 001
Energy conversion in pendulum motion
Example of pendulum motion

230 001
Experiment 11A ：
Energy conversion in a simple pendulum
Intro. VCD
Expt. VCD

231 001
A C
B
speed increases speed decreases

232 001
point B
B (the lowest position)
Speed of the weight at B (v )

Maximum separation between successive dots

Time taken
0.0266
  1.33 m s 1
233 0.02
001
Loss in P.E.  mg (hA  hB )
 1 10   0.2  0.1
1 J
1
Gain in K.E.  mv 2
2 max P.E. max P.E.
1
  1 1.33
2
max K.E.
2
 0.88 J
Gain in K.E.  Loss in P.E.

234 001
gain in kinetic energy
potential energy
energy loss due to friction

235 001
Energy conversion in elastic collision

Before collision
plunger
After collision

236 001
Elastic collision
Total kinetic energy
Before collision K.E.  1 mAuA2  1 mBuB2
2 2
1
  2   0.25  0
2
plunger
2
 0.062 5 J
After collision 1 2 1
K.E.  mAv A  mBvB2
2 2
1 2 1
  2   0.085   1  0.33
2
2 2
 0.061 7 J

237 001
Elastic collision
The total kinetic energy before and after
the collision are nearly the same, the
mechanical energy is conserved.
plunger
The slight difference is
due to ：
• experimental error
• presence of friction

238 001
Section 11.4
Non-conservation of Mechanical
Energy
• Inelastic collision
• Motion along rough surface

001
11.4 Non-conservation of mechanical energy (SB p.153) Inelastic collision
Inelastic collision
Before collision
After collision move together

240 001
Inelastic collision
Total kinetic energy
Before collision K.E.  1 m u 2  1 m u 2
A A 2 B B 2
1
  1  0.23  0
2
2
 0.026 5 J
After collision 1 1
K.E.  mAv 2  mBv 2
2 2
1
move together  mA  mB  v 2
2
1
  1 1   0.12
2
2
 0.014 4 J

241 001
Inelastic collision
The total kinetic energy after the
inelastic collision decreases,
mechanical energy is not conserved.
Loss of mechanical energy

→ transform into internal
energy and sound
move together

242 001
11.4 Non-conservation of mechanical energy (SB p.154) Motion along
rough surface
Motion along rough surface

243 001
rough surface
P.E .at top of the slide  K.E. at water surface
1 2
m
mgh  mv
2
v  2gh
h = 10 m  2  10  10
 14 m s1
m

244 001
rough surface
m
Presence of friction
• lower the speed
s
Work done against friction

friction ( f )
m W=fs

245 001
Section 11.5
Power

001
11.5 Power (SB p.156)
Power
Work done
Power 
Time taken
W
P
force t
W ＝ mgh
Unit: watt (W)
1 W = 1 J s-1

247 001
11.5 Power (SB p.156)
Power
E = 3 000 W
E = 500 W
E = 60 W
E E
electrical kinetic
聲能
energy energy

248 001
11.5 Power (SB p.157)
Power
50 s
Potential energy gained
Power 
Time taken
mgh
　 P
t
5m
40  10  5
40 kg
P
50
 40 W
0s

249 001
11.5 Power (SB p.157)
Power
W
P
t
F s

v
t
 F v
F
Power  Force  Velocity

P  Fv

250 001
11.5 Power (SB p.158)
Power
air resistance (f’)
friction by the
ground (f) driving force (F)
F f f'
Output power of the car (P )  F  v
 (f  f ' )  v

251 001
11.5 Power (SB p.158)
Class Practice 4 ： A crane lifts a pack of steel rods at

a constant speed of 0.5 m s-1. Given that the output power of
the crane is 2 500 W. Find the mass of the steel rods.
P ＝ ˍˍˍˍˍ F x v
P ˍˍˍˍˍ ＝ ˍˍˍˍˍ m x g x v
ˍˍˍˍˍ ＝ ˍˍˍˍˍ m x 10 x 0.5
2 500
 m＝ ˍˍˍˍˍkg 500
Answer

252 001
Chapter 12
Moment of a Force
12.1 Turning Effect of a Force

12.2 Principle of Moments
12.3 Parallel Forces

001
Turning Effect of a Force
Section 12.1
• Moment

001
12.1 Turning effect of a force (SB p.170)
Turning effect of a force ─ rotate about axes

Pivot (or fulcrum) ─ position of axes
axis axis
pivot
pivot
pivot
pivot
axis
axis

255 001
12.1 Turning effect of a force (SB p.170) Moment
Moment ─ the turning effect of a force

Moment arm ─ perpendicular distance between
the force and the pivot
moment arm Moment
door
hinge ＝ Force  Moment arm
(pivot)
＝Fd
door Unit of moment: N m

hinge

256 001
Moment
Moment of F1 = F1  d1
Moment of F2 = F2  d2
Same turning effect
door
hinge F1  d1 = F2  d2
As d1 > d2,
　　 F1 < F2
Note: the longer d, the smaller will be the force required.

257 001
Which requires a smaller force ? (d2 > d1)
force
force
pivot
case 1 case 2 
258 001
Moment ─ clockwise or anticlockwise
clockwis
e
pivot
pivot
anticlockwise
an anticlockwise moment a clockwise moment

259 001
Principle of Moments
Section 12.2

001
12.2 Principle of moments (SB p.174)
Principle of moments
Moment of F1
= 10  0.4
= 4 N m (anticlockwise)
pivot
Moment of F2
= 5  0.8 = 4 N m (clockwise)
Two moments ：
same in magnitude, but in
opposite direction
cannot turn
261 001
Experiment 12A ：
Intro. VCD
d2 d1
Expt. VCD
F2 F1
lever pivot

262 001
Take the mid-point of the ruler as the pivot

Total clockwise moment
= 1.6  10  0.1 + 1  10  0.4
= 5.6 N m
pivot

263 001
Take the mid-point of the ruler as the pivot

Total anticlockwise moment
= 0.4  10  0.2 + 1.2  10  0.4
= 5.6 N m
pivot

264 001
anticlockwise clockwise
moment moment
When a body is in balance,

＝ Total anticlockwise moment
265 001
Class Practice 1 ： Edmond, Jessie and Tracy are sitting
on a seesaw at the positions shown in the figures. Given that
their masses are 65 kg, 40 kg and 50 kg respectively, and the
mass of the seesaw is negligible. Find the distance of Jessie
from the pivot (d) when the seesaw is balanced.
d 1.7 m
1m
pivot
400 N 500 N 650 N
Take moment about the pivot,

650 x 1.7
Total clockwise moment ＝ ˍˍˍˍˍˍ
　　　　　　　　＝ 1ˍˍˍˍˍˍ
105 N m
Answer
266 001

500 x 1 + 400 x d
Total anticlockwise moment ＝ ˍˍˍˍˍˍ
＝ ˍˍˍˍˍˍ(500 + 400 x d) N m
When the seesaw is balanced,
Total clockwise moment ＝ Total anticlockwise moment
ˍˍˍˍˍˍ＝ ˍˍˍˍˍˍ 500 + 400 x d
1 105
d＝ ˍˍˍˍˍˍ 1.51 m
Answer

267 001
Parallel Forces
Section 12.3

001
12.3 Parallel forces (SB p.178)
Parallel forces
Reaction force (R)
reaction force (R)
= Weight (W) by finger pivot
no vertical movement
weight (W)
of ruler

269 001
Parallel forces
1. Take the mid-point
of ruler as the pivot

= 16 x 0.1 + 10 x 0.4
= 5.6 N m
mid-point
= 12 x 0.4 + 4 x 0.2
= 5.6 N m

270 001
point A
2. Take point A as the
pivot

= 12  0 + 4  0.2 + 1  0.4
+ 16  0.5 + 10  0.8
= 17.2 N m
= 43 x 0.4
= 17.2 N m

271 001
When a body is in balance,
Take any point as the pivot,

= Total clockwise moment
spring
Net moment = 0 balance
W=
0.1 kg

272 001
Parallel forces
Total upward force

= 43 N
Total downward force
= 12 + 4 + 1 + 16 + 10
= 43 N
Net
Net force
force == 00

273 001
Conditions for a body to be in equilibrium
(i)
(i) Total
Total clockwise
clockwise moment
moment
net moment = 0 == Total
Total anticlockwise
anticlockwise moment
moment

274 001
Conditions for a body to be in equilibrium
(ii)
(ii) Total
Total upward
upward force
force
== Total
Total downward
downward force
force
net force = 0

275 001
Class Practice 2 ： Edmond and Tracy are sitting on a

seesaw at the positions shown. Neglect the mass of the seesaw.
Find the normal reaction (R) at the pivot in the following two ways.
R
Edmond Tracy
pivot
500 N 1.5 m 2.5 m
(a) Take moment about Tracy.
300 N
Total clockwise moment = Total anticlockwise moment
Rˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ
x 2.5 = ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ 500 x (1.5 + 2.5)
R = ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ
800 N
(b) Net force = 0.
Total upward force = Total downward force
ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ =R ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ 500 + 300
800 N Answer
R = ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ
276 001
Chapter 13
Machines
13.1 What is a Machine?

13.2 Efficiency
13.3 Lever
13.4 Screw Jack
13.5 Inclined Plane

001
Section 13.1
What is a Machine?

001
13.1 What is a machine? (SB p.185)
Machines ─ make the task become easy

─ change the magnitude or the
direction of an applied force
Apply a small force

(effort)
nutcracker
lift up
a heavy object (load)
bottle opener
hammer

279 001
Section 13.2
Efficiency

001
13.2 Efficiency (SB p.186)
Efficiency of a machine
1. Ideal machine
Energy input = Energy output
energy ideal useful energy

input machine output

281 001
Efficiency of a machine
2. Real machine
Energy input > Energy output
energy loss
energy real useful energy


282 001
Principle of conservation of energy

Energy input = Useful energy output + Energy loss
energy loss
energy real useful energy


283 001
Efficiency (e) of a machine
Useful energy output

Efficiency (e) =  100%
Energy input

284 001
1. Ideal machine 2. Real machine
Energy input = Energy output Energy input > Energy output

Efficiency (e) = 100% Efficiency (e) < 100%
energy loss
useful
energy ideal
energy
input machine
useful
input
energy real
energy
machine
input input

285 001
Efficiency (e) of a machine
Useful energy output

Efficiency (e)   100%
Energy input
Useful power output
  100%
Power input

286 001
Lever
Section 13.3
• Efficiency of a lever
• Types of levers

001
13.3 Lever (SB p.189)
Lever
─ a device which can turn about a pivot
effort
load
pivot bar
pivot

288 001
13.3 Lever (SB p.189)
Lever
pivot
bar
Clockwise moment = E  E
E  E = L  L
Anticlockwise moment = L  L
if 　 E >> L
When the lever is in equilibrium,
E  E = L  L 　　 E << L
require a much
smaller effort
289 001
13.3 Lever (SB p.190) Efficiency of a lever
Efficiency of a lever
dE
dL

290 001
Efficiency of a lever
By similar triangles, ABO  CDO
d L lL

d E lE
pivot
Efficiency (e)
Work done on the load
  100%
Work done by the effort
L  dL L  lL
  100%   100%
E  dE E  lE
291 001
Experiment 13A ：
Use of a lever and a screw jack
Intro. VCD
Expt. VCD

292 001
Class Practice 1 ： Edmond uses a lever to lift up a load as
shown in the figure below. He finds that a minimum effort of 400 N
is required to lift the load of 1 500 N at a uniform speed. Calculate
the efficiency of the lever.
load
pivot
load
Work done on the 　　　　　    　　　　　

Efficiency  
Work done by the 　　　　　  100%
L x L effort
e
 　　　　　　　　
   　　　　　　
 100%
 　　　　　　　　

E x E  ____________________
(1 500
_ x 0.3) x 100%
 ________________ %( 400 x 1.2) Answer
94%
293 001
13.3 Lever (SB p.192) Types of levers
Types of levers
1. Load ─ pivot ─ effort
effort
pivot
effort
load effort effort
pivot load
load pivot load pivot
a crowbar a pair of scissors a
hammer

294 001
Types of levers
2. Pivot ─ load ─ effort
effort effort
load
pivot
effort
load effort
pivot
pivot
load load
pivot
a wheelbarrow a nutcracker a bottle opener

295 001
Types of levers
3. Load ─ effort ─ pivot
effort
effort load effort
effort
load
pivot
pivot pivot
pivot load load
a forearm an ice tongs a fishing rod

296 001
Section 13.4
Screw Jack
• Efficiency of a screw jack

001
13.4 Screw jack (SB p.193)
Screw jack ─ lift a very heavy load

298 001
Experiment 13A ：
Use of a lever and a screw jack
Expt. VCD

299 001
When the handle is turned through a

complete revolution, the load will be raised
by a height of one pitch (p)
one complete
load (L) revolution
raised by one p
platform
pitch (p) handle

300 001
13.4 Screw jack (SB p.194) Efficiency of a screw jack
Efficiency of Work
Work donedone by by the
the ef
ef
fort
fort (W)
(W)
a screw jack == EE  2r
2r == 2rE
2rE
the handle is turned
through one complete Work
Work donedone on on the
the lo
lo
ad
ad (W(W ’)’)
revolution
== LL  pp == Lp
Lp
load (L)
platform Efficiency (e )
handle W'
pitch (p)   100%
W
Lp
  100%
2rE
301 001
Inclined Plane
Section 13.5
• Efficiency of an inclined plane

001
13.5 Inclined plane (SB p.196) Efficiency of an inclined plane
Inclined plane
otion
of m
tio n
i re c
d
d
lo a

303 001
Inclined plane Friction

Friction isis negligible
negligible
sin 
EE == LL sin
m o tio n == mg sin 
mg sin
o f
n
ir ecti o << LL
d
d
loa (as sin  << 1)
(as sin 1)
E < L
Consider
Consider friction
friction (f)
(f)
sin  ++ ff
EE == LL sin
== mg sin  ++ ff
mg sin
304 001
Efficiency of Work
Work done
done on
on the
the load
load
an inclined plane == L sin 
L sin
o n Work
Work donedone by by the the
oti
of m effort
effort
c tion
dire == EE xx 
d
loa == (L sin  ++ ff )) 
(L sin
sin  ++ ff 
== LL  sin
== mgh
mgh ++ f f
P.E. gained by Work done

the load against f
305 001
Efficiency of an
inclined plane ti o n
o f mo
io n
ct
dire
d
loa
Efficiency (e)
Work done on the load
  100%
Work done by the effort
Lsinθ
  100%
Lsinθ
306 f Manhattan Press (H.K.) Ltd. © 2
001
Inclined at a smaller angle

smaller effort is required (E = L  sin )
steeper slope gentle slope

307 001
Chapter 14
Wave Motion
14.1 What Is a Wave?
14.2 Transverse and
Longitudinal Waves
14.3 Description of a
Wave
001
Section 14.1
• What Is a Wave?

001
14.1 What is a wave? (SB p.208)
Properties of a wave motion

• A periodic motion
• Transmit energy and information,
e.g. light wave carries solar
energy from the Sun to the Earth
• E.g. water waves, sound waves,
light waves, radio waves,
microwaves

310 001
Properties of a water wave
• Easy to observe
• Easy to produce (dropping a
small stone into water forms a
circular wave)
• Water wave spreads radially
outwards, each circular wave is
called a circular pulse

311 001
Circular waves
Circular wave —
formed by circular pulses
312 001
Propagation of a circular
wave
Wavefront —
a line joining a row of
the peaks of pulses
wavefront

313 001
Ray and wavefront
Ray — wavefront
an arrow representing
the direction of
propagation of a wave
The ray is
perpendicular to the
wavefront ray

314 001
Plane waves
Formed by vibration of straight
pulses

315 001
Propagation of a plane wave

The ray and the
wavefront are
perpendicular to
each other

316 001
Ray and wavefront of a plane
wave
ray
wavefront

317 001
Medium of a wave ─ for
propagation of a wave
Medium of Medium of
a water wave ： a sound wave ：
water air

318 001
Mechanical wave
Mechanical wave
• Waves that require media to
propagate
• Examples: water wave,
sound wave

319 001
Speed of a wave
• Speed of a wave depends only on

the medium in which the wave
travels
• Speed of a water wave depends
on the depth of water, but not the
speed of throwing the stone into
the water

320 001
Section 14.2
• Transverse and
Longitudinal Waves

001
14.2 Transverse and longitudinal waves (SB p.210)
Propagation of a water wave

Water waves propagate in all directions. It only
transmits energy, but not the water particles

322 001
Movement of cork
direction of propagation
of water waves
direction of
oscillation of cork
The cork moves up and down about a fixed

position only, but never moves along with the
wave
323 001
Experiment 14A Intro. VCD Expt. VCD
Wave motion
transverse wave longitudinal wave

324 001
Transverse wave
The direction of
oscillation is
perpendicular to the
direction of
direction of
propagation of wave
oscillation direction of propagation

325 001
Crests and troughs
crests - peaks of the wave
troughs - lowest points of the wave

326 001
If the spring is flicked at a

larger magnitude…...
• Magnitude of
pulses is larger
• Speeds of pulses
remain unchanged

327 001
If the spring is flicked at a faster rate
…...
• More pulses are

generated
• Speed of pulses
remains
unchanged

328 001
If the spring is extended and
flicked…...
• Tension of the spring increases
• Speeds of pulses increase

329 001
Longitudinal wave
The direction of
oscillation is parallel
to the direction of
propagation of wave
direction of direction of
oscillation propagation

330 001
Rarefactions and compressions of
a longitudinal wave
compressions
rarefactions

331 001
If the spring is pushed at a larger

magnitude …...
• Magnitude of pulses is larger

• Speed of pulses remains unchanged

332 001
If the spring is pushed at a faster rate
…...
• More pulses are generated
• Speed of pulses remains unchanged
If the spring is extended and
pushed…...
• Tension of the spring increases
• Speed of pulses increases

333 001
Section 14.3
Description of a Wave
• Particle motion in a transverse
travelling wave
• Particle motion in a longitudinal
travelling wave

001
14.3 Description of a wave (SB p.213)
Amplitude ( A), unit: metre (m)
A A line of
equilibrium
A positions
• Maximum displacement of a particle

from its equilibrium position
• The larger the amplitude, the higher is the
wave energy
335 001
Wavelength ( ), unit: metre (m)

• In a transverse wave, the distance between
two adjacent wave crests (or troughs)
• In a longitudinal wave, the distance between
two adjacent compressions (or rarefactions)

336 001
Period (T ), unit: second (s)

• Time required to generate one complete pulse
• Time for a crest (or a trough) to travel one
wavelength distance
time required T
337 001
Frequency (f ), unit: Hertz (Hz)

• Number of complete pulses generated
in one second
Period = T
1
Frequency(f )  (Hz)
Period
1
 (Hz)
T

338 001
14.3 Description of a wave (SB p.214) Particle motion in a transverse
Displacement-position graph of a travelling wave
wave
t=0

339 001
wave
/4
t = T/4

340 001
wave
/2
t = T/2

341 001
wave
3/4
t = 3T/4

342 001
wave
t=T

343 001
Wave v  f
travelling wave
equation:
 Time for one complete

oscillation = T,
Distance travelled = 
Distance λ 
Velocity     f
Time T 1
 
i.e.　　　 v  f f 

344 001
Class Practice 1 ： A transverse wave is
travelling to the right at a speed of 0.05 m s–1. State
the time elapse for the wave.
0.3 s
1.2 s
Answer
345 001
Two particles having the same travelling wave
displacement and vibrating at the

same velocity are said to be in
phase P and R are in phase

346 001
travelling wave
Two particles are in antiphase when
their displacements and velocities
are both equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction
P and Q are in antiphase

347 001
Draw the displacement- travelling wave
time graph of particle S
displacement
velocity-time graph
time

348 001
Class Practice 2: Fig. a is the displacement-
position graph of a travelling wave at a certain
instant. Fig. b is the displacement-time graph of a
particular particle on the wave. Find the amplitude,
wavelength, period and speed of the wave from the
displacement /
figures./ m
displacement
m
position / m time / s
Fig. a Fig. b
Amplitude = 0.05 m
Wavelength = 0.8 m
0.8
 0.08 m s-1
Period = Speed 10
= s 10 Answer
349 001
Predict motions of travelling wave
particles
• Draw a waveform (in solid line), then draw
another waveform (in dotted line) that is next to
the original one
• Motions of particles can be predicted by adding vertical
arrows from the solid curve to the dotted curve
particle moving
upwards
particle moving
downwards

350 001
Class Practice 3: If a wave as shown
below is moving to the left, state the
directions of motion of the particles A, B and
C at the instant shown.
Ａ： upward
B
A C
momentarily at rest
Ｂ：
downward
Ｃ： Answer
351 001
14.3 Description of a wave (SB p.220) Particle motion in a longitudinal
Particle motion in a longitudinal travelling wave
travelling wave
compression (C) rarefaction (R)
wavelength () wavelength ()

352 001
Particle motion in a travelling wave
longitudinal travelling wave

353 001
Displacement-position graph travelling wave
of each particle at t =1/T

equilibrium
positions
displacement / cm
position
/ cm

354 001
Displacement-time graph of travelling wave
longitudinal wave
• Slope represents velocity
displacement / cm particle is stationary
negative slope
time
positive slope

355 001
Class Practice 4 ： Fig. a shows the
equilibrium positions of some particles along a
spring. A longitudinal wave is generated and
travelling from right to left. Fig. b shows the
positions of these particles after a short time.
a)
b)
direction of wave
the right
From Fig. a to Fig. b, particle 2 has moved to
____________ and particle the left

9 has moved to ___________.
Answer
356 001
Section 14.4
Stationary Wave
• Transverse stationary
wave
• Particle motion in a
transverse stationary
wave
001
14.4 Stationary wave (SB p.224) Transverse stationary wave
Experiment 14B
Transverse stationary wave
Expt. VCD

358 001
14.4 Stationary wave (SB p.225) Transverse stationary wave
Experiment 14B
Increase the frequency of the vibrator gradually
One loop Two loops Three loops

359 001
14.4 Stationary wave (SB p.226) Particle motion in a transverse
Particle motion in a transverse stationary wave
stationary wave

360 001
14.4 Stationary wave (SB p.226) Particle motion in a
transverse stationary wave
Nodes (N) and antinodes (A)
Nodes (N) - positions where particles do
not vibrate at all
Antinodes (A) - positions where the
amplitude of particles is largest
A A
N N N N
/2
A
/2

361 001
Particles that are moving in transverse stationary wave
phase
in phase

362 001
Particles that are moving in transverse stationary wave
antiphase
antiphase

363 001
Class Practice 5
When a guitar string is plucked, a wave is
generated on the string. The wave on the string is

transverse
a _______________ (transverse / longitudinal)
_______________stationary
(travelling / stationary) wave.
Answer
364 001
Chapter 15
Water Waves
15.1 Ripple Tank

15.2 Stroboscope
15.3 Wave
Phenomena
001
Section 15.1
• Ripple Tank

001
15.1 Ripple tank (SB p.236)
Objectives
• To investigate the properties of water waves
• To learn different wave phenomena (e.g.

reflection, refraction, diffraction and
interference) with the help of ripple tank

367 001
Experiment 15A Intro. VCD Expt. VCD
Circular and straight

pulses

368 001
Experiment 15A Results

369 001
Experiment 15A Reason
bright dark bright dark bright dark bright

370 001
Circular wave

371 001
Plane wave

372 001
Section 15.2
• Stroboscope

001
15.2 Stroboscope (SB p.241)
Experiment 15B Expt. VCD
“Freezing” the wave pattern
stroboscope

374 001
Motion of a water wave

13
t  0T TT
 42
/4
/2
3/4

375 001
Rotation of a stroboscope
13
t  0T T
24
180º
270º
360º
90º

376 001
Viewing of a
plane wave
13
tt  0TTT
424
180º
90º
270º
360º

377 001
Class Practice 1:
A circular disc printed with an arrow, as shown, is
made to rotate at a speed of 30 revolutions per
second. A student holds a hand stroboscope of one
a slit to view the motion of the rotating disc.
Suppose the student can view the arrow at t = 0 s,
sketch the pattern observed by the student if the
stroboscope is rotated at a speed of:
10 rev 30 rev 60 rev 90 rev

per second per second per second per second
double viewing
Answer
378 001
Section 15.3
Wave Phenomena
• Reflection
• Refraction
• Diffraction
• Interference
001
15.3 Wave phenomena (SB p.245) Reflection
Experiment 15C Expt. VCD

Reflection of water
waves

380 001
Reflection of water waves obeys

laws of reflection

381 001
Laws of reflection
r=i
i r

382 001
Reflection of a circular wave

383 001
Properties of reflection
After reflection of a wave

• Speed, frequency and wavelength
remain unchanged
• Direction of propagation changes

384 001
Class Practice 2 : In each of the

following cases, state the angle of incidence
and draw the reflected wave.
0°
Angle of incidence = ________ 30°
Angle of incidence = ________
Answer
385 001
Class Practice 2 : (b) Draw the

reflected wave for the incident wave as
shown below.
Answer
386 001
15.3 Wave phenomena (SB p.249) Refraction
Refraction
A wave travels from one medium to

another. If it travels at different
speeds in these two media, its
direction of propagation changes.

387 001
Experiment 15D Expt. VCD

Refraction of water
waves

388 001
Refraction of a plane
wave
Showing how plane waves travel from
deep regions to shallow regions

389 001
Refraction of a plane
wave incident ray
incident
refracted
wave
wave
shallow
deep region
region
refracted ray
After the refraction, the ray bends towards

the normal, both the wavelength and the
speed decreaseManhattan Press (H.K.) Ltd. © 2
390 001
Class Practice 3:
When a water wave travels from a shallow region

away from
to a deep region, it bends ________________
increase
normal. This results from the ____________ in
the wave speed.

Answer
391 001
15.3 Wave phenomena (SB p.251) Diffraction
Diffraction
Waves bend around corners and spread at
slits. This phenomenon is called diffraction
water waves diffract

at the gateway

392 001
Experiment 15E Expt. VCD

Diffraction of water
waves

393 001
Diffraction of a plane wave
a larger gap width a smaller gap width

394 001
Diffraction of a plane
wave
• When d and  are about the same, diffraction is the most prominent
• The larger the d, the less prominent is the

diffraction
395 001
Class Practice 4 :
Draw the diffracted waves in the following
cases.
deep shallow
region region
Answer
396 001
Diffraction － a small
obstacle

397 001
Diffraction － a large obstacle

398 001
Class Practice 5 ： Complete the following
table which compares reflection, refraction
and diffraction of water waves. In the case of
refraction, the wave travels from a deep
region to a shallow
After region.
After After
After refractionAfter After
reflection refraction diffraction
reflection diffraction
Direction
Direction r=i bends towards spread out
Speed normal
Frequencyunchanged
Speed decreases unchanged
Wavelength
Frequency unchanged unchanged unchanged
Wavelength unchanged decreases unchanged
Answer

399 001
15.3 Wave phenomena (SB p.255) Interference
Experiment 15F Expt. VCD

Interference of water
waves
by a pair of dippers by two narrow gaps

400 001
Experiment 15F
Results

401 001
Condition for generating a stable
interference pattern
Coherent waves are two circular waves

of same frequency, wavelength,
amplitude and phase

402 001
Coherent sources
Coherent sources are the wave sources
that produce coherent waves

403 001
Constructive interference I
When a crest meets a crest, the
two waves reinforce each other

404 001
Constructive interference II
When a trough meets a trough, the
two waves reinforce each other

405 001
Destructive interference
When a crest meets a trough, the
two waves cancel each other

406 001
Path difference
Path difference at X
＝ |S1X - S2X|

407 001
Constructive
interference
Point Path difference

P 0 Path difference = n,
Q  n = 0, 1, 2, …
R 2
V 
408 001
Destructive interference
Point Path difference

 1
U /2 Path difference   n   , n  0,1,2,.......
 2
W 3/2
409 001
Class Practice 6 ： The figure below shows an
interference pattern in a ripple tank. Identify the kind
of interference at the labeled points.
Answer
destructive interference constructive interference

P:ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ 　　 Q:ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ
R:ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ
constructive destructive interference
　　 S:ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ
interference
410 001
Antinodal lines (A)
Antinodal lines :
lines that link up the
points of constructive
interference of the
same path difference

411 001
Nodal lines (N)
Nodal lines :
lines that link up the
points of destructive
interference of the
same path difference

412 001
Class Practice 7: The following figure is
an interference pattern marked with some
nodal line (N) and antinodal lines (A).
If S1P is equal to 30 cm
and S2P is equal to 24
cm, 6the wavelength of
the wave is
__________ cm.
6 12   5  1 12 
The path difference at
Q is 1.5  6
 9 cm
___________________
Answer
413 001
Increase the density of nodal and
antinodal lines
increase the
separation of
two sources

414 001
Increase the density of nodal
and antinodal lines
decrease the
wavelength

415 001
Interference and energy
redistribution
• According to the law of conservation
of energy, energy cannot be created
nor destroyed
• Interference is just a process of
energy redistribution
energy at the points of
energy at the points of constructive interference
destructive interference
416 001
Chapter 16
Wave Nature of Light and
Electromagnetic Spectrum
16.1 Wave Nature of Light

16.2 Electromagnetic
Spectrum
001
Section 16.1
Wave Nature of
Light
• A brief history of light

• Young’s double-slit
experiment
001
16.1 Wave nature of light (SB p.277) A brief history of light
A brief history of light

Newton (1642 - 1727)
• Light consisted of tiny particles
Huygens (1629 - 1695)
• Light is a wave motion
Young (1773 - 1829)
• Interference of light provides evidence for the
wave nature of light
Fresnel (1788 - 1827)
• Gave a detailed explanation of Young’s findings
419 001
Experiment 16A
16.1 Wave nature of light (SB p.278) Young’s double-slit experiment
Intro. VCD Expt. VCD
Young’s double-slit
experiment
Young’s double-slit

420 001
Experiment 16A
Young’s interference fringes
alternate bright and dark fringes

421 001
Double-slit makes the sources S1
and S2 coherent
diffracted beam
from S1
alternate
bright and
dark
fringes
diffracted beam
from S2
single double screen
slit slit
coherent sources
422 001
Interference patterns formed after
inserting different colour filters
As green light has a shorter wavelength than
red light, the density of interference fringes
is higher

423 001
Class Practice 1:
In Young’s double-slit experiment, if the separation o

more
f the slits is increased, _______________ (more / fe
wer) fringes will be seen.
Answer

424 001
Interference in daily lives

In daily lives, the diffraction or
interference of light are not often seen
because ...
• Wavelength of light is much shorter
than the common obstacles, so
diffraction is not prominent
• Common light sources are not coherent

425 001
Section 16.2
Electromagnetic
Spectrum
• Light as • Visible
electromagnetic spectrum
wave • Ultraviolet
• Electromagnetic radiation
spectrum • X-ray
• Radio wave • Gamma ray
• Microwave
001
16.2 Electromagnetic spectrum (SB p.281) Light as electromagnetic wave
Scotch physicist James Clerk
Maxwell
He suggested:
• Light was a kind of
electromagnetic
wave
• Speed of light was
3108 m s–1

427 001
16.2 Electromagnetic spectrum (SB p.282) Light as electromagnetic wave
Electromagnetic wave
magnetic field direction of
magnetic field
electric field direction of
electric field
direction of
propagatio direction of
n electromagnetic wave
• When a charged particle oscillates about

an equilibrium position, a varying electric
field coupled with a varying magnetic
field are generated
428 001
16.2 Electromagnetic spectrum (SB p.282) Electromagnetic spectrum
Propagation of an electromagnetic
wave
• Electromagnetic wave propagates at
a direction perpendicular to both
electric and magnetic fields. So it is a
transverse wave
• Propagate at a speed of 3  108 m s–1
in vacuum
• Obey the wave equation v = f

429 001
Electromagnetic visible gamma
spectrum light ray
micro infrared ultraviolet
radio wave
wave
X-ray
wavelength / m
red violet
frequency / Hz

430 001
Applications of electromagnetic
wave
ultraviolet visible infrared

X-ray radiation spectrumradiation microwave
y radio
gam ma ra wave
ion
Caut a terial
ve m
oacti
Radi
electromagnetic
spectrum

431 001
16.2 Electromagnetic spectrum (SB p.283) Radio wave
Classification of radio
waves
• Extra low, very low and low frequency
waves (10 Hz to 300 kHz)
• Medium waves and short waves

(300 kHz to 30 MHz)
• Very high and ultrahigh frequency waves

(30 MHz to 800 MHz)

432 001
ELF, VLF and LF

Radio waves Frequency range Applications
Extra Low 10 Hz to 1 kHz
used in deep ocean
Frequency (ELF) communications as
they can penetrate
well in sea water
Very Low Frequency 1 kHz to 10 kHz used in national
(VLF) security
Low Frequency (LF) 10 kHz to 300 kHz communications

433 001
MW and SW
Radio waves Frequency range Applications

used in radio
Medium broadcasting by
300 kHz to1600 kHz
Waves (MW) amplitude
modulation (AM)
Short Waves used in radio
6 MHz to 30 MHz
(SW) broadcasting

434 001
VHF and UHF

Radio Frequency Applications
waves range
used in radio
Very High
30 MHz broadcasting by
Frequency
to 200 MHz frequency modulation
(VHF)
(FM)
used in television
Ultrahigh
several broadcasting, pagers
Frequency
hundred MHz and mobile phones
(UHF)
communications
435 001
Class Practice 2: Hit Radio broadcasts with

a frequency of 99.7 MHz. What is the
wavelength of this radio wave?
 v 
By 　　　  　　　　　　　
　　　　　　　 
f
　　　　　　　
3 × 108 
 　　　　　　　 
99.7 × 10 6
3.0 m___
 ______________
Answer
436 001
Diffraction of radio waves

Radio waves of long wavelengths
diffract more around an obstacle
than those of short wavelengths
hill hill hill
poor reception better reception best reception

437 001
Propagation of radio
waves
Because of the curvature of the earth,
receivers far away from transmitters
cannot receive radio waves
transmitter receiver
poor
reception
earth

438 001
Propagation of radio waves
(method 1)
build a
repeater repeater
earth

439 001
Propagation of radio waves (method
2)
ionosphere
reflection on
the ionosphere
earth

440 001
16.2 Electromagnetic spectrum (SB p.288) Microwave
Experiment 16B
Interference of microwaves
Expt. VCD

441 001
Experiment 16B
Results
3 cm microwave
constructive
transmitter microwave receiver
interference
connect and
to a destructive microammeter
power interference
supply occur

442 001
3 cm microwave microwave
micro-
To ammeter
power
supply
Chris used the above experimental set-up to study the interference of

microwaves. He placed the receiver at the position of central
maximum. He then moved the receiver towards A along the line AB.
While doing so, the reading on the microammeter first dropped__________
rose
(rose / dropped) and then __________ (rose / dropped) again. This
variation continued when he further moved the receiver towards A.
If Chris record the first maximum at N where S1N = 52 cm, the distance
S2N should be __________ 55cm. Press (H.K.) Ltd. © 2
Manhattan Answer
443 001
Properties of
microwave
Since the wavelengths of microwaves are
short, they hardly diffract. This is the basic
working principle of radar
radar
aerial

444 001
Radar
detection P1 is transmitted pulse
P2 is reflected pulse
screen of radar
radar aerial

445 001
Police use radar to check
speeding on roads

446 001
Satellite communication
communication
satellite
earth station
receiver
earth
447 001
Microwave oven
microwaves of frequency 2.45 GHz
When water molecules

inside the food are struck by
microwaves,
→molecules oscillate
vigorously
→internal energy of
foods increases
→temperature of food
increases gradually
→the food is cooked
448 001
16.2 Electromagnetic spectrum (SB p.293) Infrared radiation
Applications of infrared
radiation
Due to the longer wavelength, infrared
radiation is less scattered by fine particles
than the visible light, and so passes
through haze easily
ordinary photograph infrared photograph
more clear

449 001
radiation
Infrared radiation emitted form plants can be
detected by infrared photographs. This gives
details of the vegetation (in red)
taken at taken from an

Shatin earth resource satellite

450 001
radiation check the teeth
of a killer whale
remote
controls
auto-focus
camera

451 001
Applications of infrared radiation

display of
infrared night-vision infrared signals
equipment

452 001
Experiment 16C Visible spectrum
16.2 Electromagnetic spectrum (SB p.296)
Visible spectrum and infrared

radiation
Expt. VCD

453 001
16.2 Electromagnetic spectrum (SB p.296) Visible spectrum
Experiment 16C
Dispersion
red
t
ligh orange
w hite yellow
green
blue
indigo
violet
prism

454 001
Applications of ultraviolet
16.2 Electromagnetic spectrum (SB p.298) Ultraviolet spectrum
radiation
- sunbathe
used in
producing
vitamin D

455 001
Harm of sunbathe
ultraviolet
exposure to too radiation
ozone layer
much radiation
may cause
skin cancer

456 001
Applications of ultraviolet radiation

check the genuineness
reveal fluorescent
of banknotes
security marks

457 001
16.2 Electromagnetic spectrum (SB p.299) X-ray
Applications of X-ray
reveal the contents X-ray diffraction pattern
X-ray photograph of luggage from crystalline
sodium chloride (NaCl)

458 001
16.2 Electromagnetic spectrum (SB p.300) Gamma ray
Gamma ray
radioactive substances
should be kept in
lead-shielded box
and handled with forceps

459 001
16.2 Electromagnetic spectrum (SB p.300) Gamma ray
Application of gamma ray
radiotherapy

460 001
Chapter 17
Sound
17.1 Production and
Propagation of Sound
17.2 Wave Nature of Sound
17.3 Properties of Sound
17.4 Ultrasonics
001
Section 17.1
• Production and
Propagation of Sound

001
17.1 Production and propagation of sound (SB p.311)
Production of sound
a piano
a chorus
a double bass

463 001
Sounds are produced by vibrations
of particles in a medium
copper strips in
a harmonica
vocal cords vibrate
vibrate
guitar strings
vibrate
drumskin
vibrates cymbals
strike one
another and
then vibrate

464 001
Sound wave are longitudinal
waves
direction of sound wave
displacement of air molecules
wave- wave-
loudspeaker length length
molecules vibrate back and forth
Sound waves propagates through the

oscillation of air molecules

465 001
Loudspeaker is stationary
no vibration

466 001
Loudspeaker pushs forwards
air molecules are

pushed forwards

467 001
Loudspeaker drags backwards
air molecules are

dragged backwards

468 001
Vibrations of a tuning
fork
A tuning fork vibrates and gives sound
when it is struck
rarefactions
compressions
vibrating
tuning fork

469 001
Does sound propagate in the
following medium?
solid
 Sound must propagate through medium
liquid

gas 
vacuum
470 001
Speed of propagation of
sound
about 200 m s -1
to 300 m s-1
gas
about 1500 m s-1
to 3000 m s-1
liquid
about 5000 m s-1
to 6000 m s-1
solid

471 001
During a thunderstorm, Edmond hears the thunderclap 6 s
after he has seen the flash of lightning. If sound travels in air
at a speed of 350 m s-1, find the distance between the
thundercloud and Edmond.
Distance travelled
Speed  Time taken
＝ ˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍˍ
350  6
2 100 m Answer
472 001
Section 17.2
Wave Nature of
Sound
• Reflection
• Refraction
• Diffraction
001
17.2 Wave nature of sound (SB p.316) Reflection
Echo — reflection of sound

474 001
17.2 Wave nature of sound (SB p.317) Refraction
Refraction of sound
— like the refraction of light
air
water
direction of
propagation
of sound

475 001
Sound and temperature

sound speed
high temperature fast
low temperature slow

476 001
The direction of propagation of sound
curves downwards at night
People can hear the voice
farther away easily at night
higher temperature
direction of
warmer air propagation
of sound
cooler air
lower temperature

477 001
The direction of propagation of
sound curves upwards in daytime
In daytime, people feel more difficult to
hear the voice farther away, but people at the
top of the hill can hear the voice from the
people at the bottom of the hill easily
lower temperature
cooler air
direction of
propagation of
warmer air sound
higher temperature

478 001
Diffraction — person in the room can
Diffraction
17.2 Wave nature of sound (SB p.318)
hear the sound of television outside

…...
diffracted
sound
reflected
sound

479 001
17.2 Wave nature of sound (SB p.318) Diffraction
Diffraction — person can hear
around corner …...

480 001
Experiment 17A
Intro. VCD
Interference of sound waves
CRO
signal generator
Expt. VCD
loudspeaker
microphone

481 001
Experiment 17A Results
constructive interference and

destructive interference occur
482 001
Section 17.3
Properties of
Sound
• Pitch and frequency

• Loudness and
intensity
001
17.3 Properties of sound (SB p.319) Diffraction
Musical notes and noises

• Both musical notes and noises
are sound waves
• Waveforms of musical notes are
regular, so pleasant to hear
• Waveforms of noises are
irregular, so unpleasant to hear

484 001
17.3 Properties of sound (SB p.320)
Experiment 17B Musical
notes
Expt. VCD CRO
signal generator
pitch? loudspeaker quality?
loudness?
485 001
17.3 Properties of sound (SB p.321) Pitch and frequency
The higher the pitch, the higher the
frequency
frequencies of tuning forks increase

gradually, producing sounds of eight
different frequencies
486 001
17.3 Properties of sound (SB p.322) Loudness and intensity
Intensity of sound
• A sound carries larger amount of

energy has a higher intensity and
larger amplitude
• Different sensations of sounds of
different intensities are called
loudness

487 001
Frequency
original trace
increased
frequency
decreased
frequency

488 001
Intensity of
sound
original trace increased
intensity
decreased
intensity

489 001
Audible frequency range of

human
• 20 Hz to 20 kHz
• Most sensitive frequency range:

500 Hz to 5 kHz

490 001
17.3 Properties of sound (SB p.324) Quality
Quality Different musical instruments generate

different qualities of sound which
depend on the waveforms of the notes

491 001
17.3 Properties of sound (SB p.324) Quality
Musical instruments Quality

produce fundamental
frequency note and
overtones fundamental
frequency
Fundamental frequency
note: determines the
pitch overtone
Overtones: other higher (twice the
fundamental
frequencies that frequency
superpose with the
fundamental one
Quality: different resultant
overtones of different waveform
amplitudes give
characteristic quality
492 001
Section 17.4
Ultrasonics
• Applications of ultrasonics

001
17.4 Ultrasonics (SB p.326)
Ultrasonics (or ultrasound)

• Frequency: above 20 kHz
• Out of the audible range
of human
• Bats and dolphins can
emit and detect
ultrasound, this help them
to decide the positions of
obstacles and prey and
communicate with each
other
494 001
17.4 Ultrasonics (SB p.327) Applications of ultrasonics
Applications of
ultrasonics
use of ultrasonics in
cleaning spectacles
ultrasonic imaging
detecting cracks
in metals
495 001
Sonar — applications on the surface
of the sea
use sonar to detect

depth of the sea transmitter
ultrasonic
waves
waves
reflected
from bottom

496 001
Sonar — applications beneath the
sea
a submarine uses sonar
to detect other objects
reflected sonar from the

submarine on the left
sonar transmitted from the
submarine on the right

497 001
The End

498 001

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Chapter 8

Motion Along a Straight Line

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Position and distance

Position and distance

Position and distance

a quartz clock an atomic clock

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Unit: m s–1 or km h–1

The world record for the men’s 100 m race

e.g. speedometer of a car

Hunghom Kowloon Shatin University Tai Wo Sheung

From (4) Tai Wai to (5) Shatin

Distance Distance travelled

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Ticker-tape timer ─ Record a moving body

ticker-tape timers ticker-tape

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2. 50 black dots can be

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5-tick length takes 0.1

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(changing-speed motion) speed is unchanged

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Class Practice 2 ： The tape results below record the

Area under speed-time graph

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Area under speed-time graph

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Class Practice 3 ： A van and a lorry move at constant

negative (–) positive (+)

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depend on the independent of the

Total displacement = ˍˍˍˍˍˍ 0 m Answer

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Velocity and speed

speed 70 km h-1 70 km h-1

Time interval / s 0 - 5 5 - 10 10-20 20-30 30-40

Class Practice 6 ： An ant takes 10 minutes to walk

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(i) From 0 s to10 s,

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Class Practice 7 ： A car, which is at rest initially,

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Velocity-time graph (v-t graph)

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the body is decelerating

(i)　 From 0 s to10 s,