1

Wireless Systems and

standards
2
Standard setting bodies in Wireless
ITU-T
IEEE for Wireless LANs (802 committee)
Examples are: IEEE802.11, IEEE 802.15, IEEE 802.16
European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI): GSM
EIC: Electronic Industry Association:
Examples: Interim std IS-54, IS-136 (TDMA in 800-900 and 1900
Mhz band)
TIA: telecommunication Industry Association IS-95
CDMA
Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association
(CTIA)
The Open Mobile Alliance (OMA),

3
Cellular technologies evolution
Broadly classified as
First generation
Second generation
Two and half (2.5 G) generation
Third generation
Already talking about 4 and th generation
4
Cellular Technologies Evolution Contd
First generation cellular systems (analog)
Advanced Mobile phone service (AMPS)(1983)
Frequency band: 824-894 MHz, channel BW of 30 KHz, FM
modulation
Frequency division multi access
Mobility to the phone service
Narrow Band Advanced Mobile phone service (NAMPS)(1992)
Same as AMPS, except uses channel BW of 10 KHz
Total Access Cellular system (Mostly in Europe) 1985
Frequency band: 900 MHz, channel BW of 25 KHz, FM modulation
Frequency division multi access
Also called European Total Access Cellular System
Nordic Mobile telephone system
Frequency band: 450-470 MHz, channel BW of 25 KHz, FM
modulation Developed in 1981. Uses FDMA
Freq band: 890-960 MHz, channel bandwidth of 12.5 KHz FM
modulation Developed in 19861. Uses FDMA


5
Cellular Evolution (Contd)
2
nd
generation Cellular system (Digital)
Global System for Mobile Comm. (GSM) 1990
Frequency band: 890-960 MHz
Channel bandwidth of 200 KHz
Uses Time division multiple access (TDMA)- 8 TDM channels
on one freq carrier
Modulation : GMSK (Gaussian Minimum shift keying)
United states Digital cellular (USDC): IS-54/IS136 (also known
as digital AMPS) 1990
IS-54 and IS-136 are standards for TDMA American Digital
Cellular.
Frequency band: 824-894 MHz, and 1.8/1.9 GHz
Multiple access method (TDMA/FDM)
Channel Spacing: 30Khz
Supports 3 time slots
Modulation: DQPSK (Differential Quadrature phase shift
keying)
Channel Bit Rate: 48.6Kb
Used in USA, South America and Australia


6
Cellular Evolution (Contd)
Pacific Digital cellular (PDC) in Japan 1993
Frequency band: 810-1501 MHz
Multiple access method (TDMA/FDM)
Channel Spacing: 25Khz
Modulation: DQPSK
CDMA-One (IS-95) 1993
Frequency band: 824-894 MHz, and 1.8 to 2.0
GHz
Code division multiple access (CDMA)
Channel bandwidth 1.25 MHz
Modulation: QPSk/BPSK (quadrature phase shift
keying)
Deployed in USA, south America, Korea, Japan,
China and Australia
In general all 2G technologies have better spectrum
efficiency as compared to 1 G


7
2nd generation Technology
8
AMPS
AMPS (Advanced Mobile cellular system)

Uses 800 Mhz band
First implemented in Chicago to cover approximately 2100 square
miles
Used large cells and omni directional antennas to minimize equipment
needs

The AMPS system uses 7 cell reuse pattern with provision for
sectoring and cell splitting to increase capacity when required.

Smallest reuse factor that satisfies this condition with 120 degrees
sectoring is 7 cell reuse.


9
AMPS
In US each provider ( A and B) used 416 duplex channels each.

The freq allocations vary from country to country

The Air Interface standard is identical thru the world.

Each system has System ID (SID). Provider A has been assigend
odd SID numbers while provider B is assigend even SID numbers

10
AMPS overview
Uses FDMA/FDD for Radio transmission

Reverse link: 824 to 849 Mhz
Forward link: 869 to 894 Mhz
Channel assignment ; 30 Khz

Separation of 45 Mhz between forward and reverse
channel.
This allows use of inexpensive, but highly selective
duplexers in the subscriber units
Max freq deviation +- 12 Khz (+- 10 Khz for ETACS)

The Base stations have tall towers, supporting several
receiving antennas, and have TX antennas that radiate a
few hundred watts of effective radiated power

Each Cell typically has one control channel transmitter,
that broadcasts on this channel


11
AMPS overview (contd)
Each cell has one control channel receiver
This reverse channel is used for call set up.

Each cell also supports 8 or more duplex channels

Commercial base stations support as many as 57 duplex
channels

Actual number of Voice channels and control channels
per cell varies from implementation to implementation
Depending upon offered traffic, maturity of the system
and locations of other base stations

Actual number of base stations also varies.
In a rural area there may be only one cell tower
In urban areas there may be several hundred base
stations



12
AMPS Overview (Contd)

In each US Market the A provider is assigned an odd
system Identification number (SIN), while B provider is
assigned an even system Identification number (SIN),
SIN is transmitted every 0.8 secs, on each FCC, along
with other data such as
status of the cellular system.
If roamers will be automatically registered
How power control is handled
if other standards such as N-AMPS or USDC can be
supported by the system
In US mobile subscribers either access system A or
B, even though technically the subscribers can access
both.
Each System A or B supports 416 channels, out of
which 21 are uses as control channels



13
AMPS : Types of Channels
Control channels
Reverse and forward control channels
Control channels are used for call set up
Registration
Paging ( Notification of an incoming call to a mobile)
Voice channels (Reverse and forward control channels)
Voice signals
Supervisory audio tone (SAT)
Signaling tone (Used for sending a signal from a mobile
indicating call termination)
Blank and burst ( The voice transmission is suspended, and data
is sent may be to effect a hand-off)

14
ETACS overview
Uses FDMA/FDD for Radio transmission
Reverse link: 890 to 915 MHz
Forward link: 935 to 960 MHz
Total number of channels supported : 1000
Max freq deviation +- 10 KHz
The control channel TX and Blank and burst transmission are at 8
Kbps
These data streams have max freq. deviation of +- 6.4 KHz
ETACS supports 42 control channels. ( Since no duopoly)
ETACS uses area identification numbers instead of SIN
ETACS users can access any control or voice channel.





15
Call Handling in AMPS/ETACS
Mobile registration process
When a mobile is powered on it runs a self diagnostic. Then it starts to scan
the forward control channels. It picks the cell with strongest signal. Mobile
scans every 7 secs, or when signal strength falls below a certain threshold.
Once it picks the strongest signal, it decodes SIN to determine if it is at its
home location.
If too many errors it will pick next strongest signal

When MS has successfully camped on to a FCC it transmits a message
which contains info such as Electronic serial number (ESN), its phone
number, its home system ID etc. The mobile sends this info in the RCC.
The base station sends this information to MSC, which consults with various
databases to check the info out.
If everything checks out the mobile is ready to either make a call or receive
a call
For blank and burst mode data transmission, FSK is used by both the base and mobile station in
blank and burst mode to initiate handoff, to change the subscriber power , and provide other
system data.
16
Call Handling in AMPS/ETACS (Contd)
Mobile receiving an incoming call
Mobile continues to monitor control channel.
If there is an incoming call for this mobile, a page is sent by MSC on all the
base stations FCCs. The page includes the mobiles MIN.
If the intended mobile receives this page, it will send an ack on the RCC.
When MSC receives the ack, the MSC directs the base station to assign
FVC and RVC to the call..
The base station also assigns to the subscriber unit a supervisory Audio
tone (SAT), and voice mobile attenuation code (VMAC)
After the RVC and FVC assignment the mobile moves to these new
frequencies, and voice transmission can proceed. Also during a call, if any
signaling is required it is done on the pair of voice channels
The SAT is transmitted continuously on both the FVC and RFC.
The VMAC instructs the mobile to transmit at a particular power level.
Once a call is up on a voice channel, all signaling is done on the voice
channel via a scheme known as "Blank and Burst". When the site needs to
send an order to the mobile, such as hand off, power up, or power down, it
mutes the SAT on the voice channel. This is filtered at the mobile so that the
customer never hears it. When the SAT is muted, the phone mutes the
audio path, thus the "blank", and the site sends a "burst" of data. The
process takes a fraction of a second and is scarcely noticeable to the
customer. Again, it's more noticeable on a Motorola system than on
Ericsson or Lucent. You can sometimes hear the 'bzzt' of the data burst."
17

Telephone Call Made to A Mobile User
MSC
Incoming
Telephone call
2 6
5
4
3 7
MS X
Step 1
BS
BS
Step 1 The incoming telephone call to Mobile X is received at the MSC.
Step 2 The MSC dispatches the request to all base stations in the cellular system.
Step 3 All the base stations broadcast the Mobile Identification Number (MIN),
telephone number of Mobile X, as a paging message over the FCC throughout the
cellular system.
Step 4 The mobile receives the paging message sent by the base station it monitors
and responds by identifying itself over the reverse control channel (RCC).
Step 5 The base station relays the acknowledgement sent by the mobile and informs
the MSC of the handshake.
Step 6 The MSC instructs the base station to move the call to an available voice
channel within the cell
Step 7 The base station signals the mobile to change frequencies to an unused
forward and reverse voice channel pair. .(Sends SAT, Voice mobile attenuation code)
and At the point another data message (alert) is transmitted over the forward voice
channel (FVC) to instruct the mobile to ring.
Now the call is established and conversion can proceed)


2
PSTN
18
Call Handling in AMPS/ETACS (Contd)
Mobile initiating a call
When a subscriber unit initiates a call, the mobile unit sends an originating message
on RCC.
The originating message includes
Subscriber MIN, ESN, station class mark and the destination telephone
number
The station class mark or SCM tells the cell site and the switch what power
level the mobile phone operates at. The cell site can turn down the power in
your phone, lowering it to a level that will do the job while not interfering with
the rest of the system. In years past the station class mark also told the
switch not to assign older phones to a so called expanded channel, since
those phones were not built with the new frequencies the FCC allowed.

If received correctly at the base station it sends this info to MSC
MSC checks out the information to determine if the subscriber is a registered
user,
Connects the subscriber to PSTN
Assigns the call to FVC and RFC, with specific SAT and VMAC
This info is sent to the subscriber units, who switches to the new freq pair, adjusts
it TX power level and returns the SAT back.
During the call MSC will issue a number of blank and burst commands


19
Call Handling in AMPS/ETACS (Contd)
Step 1 When a mobile originates a call, it sends the base station its
telephone number (MIN), electronic serial number (ESN), and telephone
number of called party. It also transmits a station class mark (SCM) which
indicates what the maximum power level is for the particular user.
Step 2 The cell base station receives the data and sends it to the MSC.
Step 3 The MSC validates the request, makes connection to the called
party through the PSTN and instructs the base station and mobile user to
move to an unused forward and reverse channel pair to allow the
conversation to begin.
PSTN
MSC
2
1
3
Telephone call
Originated by a mobile
Mobile initiating a call
20
Call Handling in AMPS/ETACS (Contd)
What happens when all the voice channels are busy?
The MSC will hold PSTN line open, and instructs the current
base station to issue a directed retry to the subscriber on FCC.
A directed retry forces the MS to switch to a different base
station, fro voice channel assignment
Depending on propagation conditions, location of a subscriber
unit and the current traffic in the base station the directed retry
may or may not work.
21
Call Handling in AMPS/ETACS (Contd)
While voice channels are in use, three additional signaling
techniques are used
The supervisory signal audio tone (SAT); it always exists during voice
traffic except blank and burst
The signaling tone (ST)
Blank and burst wide band data (allow the adjustment of power levels, or
initiate a hyandoff)
The signaling tone (ST)
Is a 10Kbps data burst, which signal call termination by the subscriber.
It is a special end-of call message consisting of 1 and 0, which is sent
on RVC by a mobile for 200 ms.
Unlike blank and burst messages, which suspend the SAT transmission,
the ST tone has to be sent simultaneously with the SAT.
ST alerts the base station that the subscriber has ended the call.
When a user terminates a call, ST tone is automatically sent by the
mobile unit.
This lets the BS and MSC know that a call was terminated voluntarily by
the user, as opposed to being dropped by the system

22
supervisory Audio tone (SAT)
The purpose of SAT is indicate the continuity of the conversation
A SAT is a high pitched, inaudible tone that helps the system distinguish between callers
on the same channel but in different cells. .



The detection of SAT must be performed every 250 msecs by the subscriber units

The dropped or prematurely terminated calls are often traced to incorrect detection of
SAT, or interference at the mobile

A given base station will always constantly transmit one of the 3 SAT tones on each voice
channel while it is in use.

The particular freq of a SAT denotes a particular base station location for a given channel
and is assigned by MSC for each call.

23
supervisory Audio tone (SAT) (Contd)
Example of SAT assignment
Within a cluster of N=7

S0
S1
S2
S1
S1
S2
S2
S0
S1
S2
S1
S1
S2
S2
S0 S1 S2
S1

S0

S2
S0

S0

S1

S0

S0

S2
24
Radio Interface
25
USDC (IS-54 and IS-136)
IS-54 is the standard for the digital version of the US AMPS system.

IS-54 has been replaced by the IS-136 standard.

The system uses hybrid Frequency Division Multiple Access and Time
Division Multiple Access concept as it accepts 3 users per carrier.

The carrier spacing 30 kHz, similar to the analog AMPS.
Thus, assuming that the analog and digital system use the same
frequency reuse pattern, the digital version can accommodate three
times more users.

In terms of frequency planning the digital system behaves similar to analog
AMPS.

The USDC system was designed to use same frequency spectrum as
AMPS, freq reuse plan, and base station. If the subscriber equipment and
base station is eqiupped with both the AMPS channels and Digital channels
then the AMPS system can be migrated to USDC in a graceful manner

IS-136: IS-136 added a number of features to the original IS-54
specification, including text messaging, circuit switched data (CSD), and an
improved compression protocol. SMS and CSD were both available as part
of the GSM protocol, and IS-136 implemented them in a nearly identical
fashion.


26
USDC Radio Interface
To ensure smooth migration from AMPS to USDC the IS-136 is
specified to operate in a dual mode, which makes roaming possible
with a single phone
USDC supports 3 subscribers in a single FVC/RVC channel
USDC uses TDMA. as more efficient voice coding becomes
available, it could potentially support more subscribers
27
USDC Radio Interface
28
USDC Channels
Supervisory/control channel
AMPS specifies 42 control channels ( 21 each for provider A and
provider B)
IS-136 has specified additional 42 called secondary control channels
The secondary control channels during transition can be allocated to
USDC only, so AMPS does not have to monitor or decode these
channels, and the SMS and paging services may be introduced for
USDC only
After the transition is complete all the control channels will be used, to
carry the signaling, paging and SMS traffic
Voice channels: Same as AMPS except converted to TDMA. Occupies 30
Khz bandwidth in forward as well as in reverse direction. Each Voice channel
supports a max of 3 users, and has six time slots.
For full rate speech coding a max of 3 users
For half rate speech coding a max of 6 users
User 1, may occupy slots 1 and 4, user 2 may occupy 3 and 5 slots,
while user 3 may occupy 3 and 6 time slots
A half rate user occupies only one slot
29
Full rate Voice channels
A full rate traffic channel uses 2 time slots
A mobile typically uses idle time to measure the signal
strength of the surrounding channels to assist in MAHO
30
GSM Network Areas
Network Areas
cells,
location areas (LAs),
MSC/VLR service areas,
public land mobile network (PLMN) areas.
Cell:
Area covered by one BTS
each cell is identified via the cell global identity (CGI) number
assigned to each cell.
Location Areas
The location area is a group of cells.
It is the area in which the subscriber is paged.
Each LA is served by one or more base station controllers,
yet only by a single MSC
Each LA is assigned a location area identity (LAI) number.
31
Location Area
The location area is a group of cells.
It is the area in which the subscriber is paged.
Each LA is served by one or more base station controllers,
yet only by a single MSC
Each LA is assigned a location area identity (LAI) number.

Location
Areas
32
MSC/VLR Service Areas

An MSC/VLR service area represents the part of the
GSM network
covered by one MSC.
Each mobile is registered either in HLR, or in one VLR
MSC/VLR Service Areas

33
Public Land Mobile network Area
The PLMN service area is an area served by one
network operator
34
Interfaces used in GSM
MS to BTS interface: Air Interface
Comprises of speech channels and
Control channels
35
Interfaces used in GSM (Contd)
Mobile to base station interface (Um/air interface): Mobile Station and the
Base Station Subsystem communicate across this interface. Also called
radio link
Standradized by GSM

BTS to BSC interface (Abis interface): BTS and BSC communicate over this
interface. Abis interface carries traffic and maintenance data
Standardized by GSM
In reality, Abis interface for each manufacturer has subtle differences, hence
forcing carriers to use same vendor.

BSC to MSC interface ( A interface); A BSC is connected to MSC via
dedicated/leased line or microwave
Standardized within GSM
A interface that supports both the communication between BSC and MSC
and network messages between mobile and MSC
The standardization permits a carrier to use BSC and MSC equipment from
different vendors

36
GSM Radio Subsystem
GSM is operated in many radio bands.
Initially it used 2 (two) 25 Mhz bands
890-915 MHz for subscriber to base station (reverse )
935-960 Mhz from base to subscriber (forward)
Each forward and reverse band divide into 200 KHz wide channels
(called Absolute Radio Freq Channel numbers)
The ARFCN denotes a forward and reverse channel pair which is
separated by 45 Mhz
Each channel is time shared between as many as 8 users
Uses TDMA/FDD
access methodGSM utilizes the time division multiple access
(TDMA) concept. TDMA is a technique in which several different
calls may share the same carrier. Each call is assigned a particular
time slot.

All the 8 subscribers share same ARFCN, and occupies a unique time
slot per frame. The information channel can be identified by ARFCN and
the slot number
GSM uses Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK), with BT product of
0.3
Transmission rate: an over-the-air bit rate of 270.833 kbps.
Thus the signaling bit duration is= 1/ 270.833 = 3.692 s
speech coderGSM uses linear predictive coding (LPC). The purpose
of LPC is to reduce the bit rate. The LPC provides parameters for a filter
that mimics the vocal tract. The signal passes through this filter, leaving
behind a residual signal. Speech is encoded at 13 kbps.

37
GSM Air Interface
38
GSM Frame Structure
TCH: Traffic channel
26 Frames
3
Tail bits
57 Coded
bits
1Bit
Steal
26
Midamble
1Bit
Steal
57 Coded
bits
3
Tail bits
8.25
Guard
Slot Format
156.25 bits
39
TDMA Frame for GSM
TCH and SACCH
The idle frame gives time to MS to perform other tasks such as measuring the
signal strength of neighboring cells or its own cell

In a half rate channel the traffic is transmitted every other frame time slot, instead
of transmitting in every time slot o every frame. .
40
GSM Frame Structure (Contd)
Number of Frames in a multiframe= 26
Frame length in bits = 4.615 * 270.833= 1249.894 bits
Slot length = 4.615/8 = 576.875 s
Slot length in bits = 156.25 bits.
8.25 bits as guard time
6 start and stop bits
26 bit training sequence used for equalization
Number of 200 Khz channels in 25 Mhz band = 125
In practice some guard band, so total number of channels are
124
Total number of users = 124 * 8 = 992
A physical channel is defined by ARFCN and Ts slot number for
both the reverse and forward channel
The physical channels can be mapped into logical channels at
different times
GSM specifies a variety of logical channels, which link physical to
link layer of GSM network


41
GSM Channel Types
Types: Traffic Channels (TCH) and Control channels (CCH)
TCHs and many control channels

A traffic channel (TCH)
carries speech and data traffic.
TCH duration =120/26/8 msecs= 576.9 micro secs

Out of the 26 frames, 24 are used for traffic, 1 is used for the Slow
Associated Control Channel (SACCH) and 1 is currently unused (see Figure
2). TCHs for the uplink and downlink are separated in time by 3 burst
periods, so that the mobile station does not have to transmit and receive
simultaneously, thus simplifying the electronics.
These TCH are also called full rate TCH

half-rate TCHs : not yet implemented. Half-rate TCHs will effectively double
the capacity of a system once half-rate speech coders are specified (i.e.,
speech coding at around 7 kbps, instead of 13 kbps).
In half rate, if not used for speech, user data mapped in the same slot,
but transmitted in alternate frames

Eighth-rate TCHs are also specified, and are used for signalling. In the
recommendations, they are called Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channels
(SDCCH).
42
Traffic Channels (TCH)
Full rate TCH (TCH/FS)
Full rate Speech Channel: 13 Kbps speech . With GSM channel
coding added the full rate speech is 22.8 Kbps
Full rate data channel for 9600 Bps (TCH/F9.6)
Raw data bit rate : 9.6 Kbps
With FEC as per GSM standards the actual data rate is 22.8 kbps
Full rate data channel for 4800 Bps (TCH/F4.8)
Raw data bit rate : 4.8 Kbps
With additional FEC as per GSM standards the actual data rate is
22.8 kbps
Full rate data channel for 2400 Bps (TCH/F2.4)
Raw data bit rate : 2.4 Kbps
With additional FEC as per GSM standards the actual data rate is
22.8 kbps






43
Half RateTraffic Channels (TCH)
Half rate TCH (TCH/HS)
Half rate Speech Channel: 6.5 Kbps speech . With GSM channel
coding added the full arte speech is 11.4 Kbps
Half rate data channel for 4800 Bps (TCH/H4.8)
Raw data bit rate : 4.8 Kbps
With FEC as per GSM standards the actual data rate is 11.4 kbps
half rate data channel for 2400 Bps (TCH/H2.4)
Raw data bit rate : 2.4 Kbps
With additional FEC as per GSM standards the actual data rate is
11.4 kbps


44
GSM Control Channels
Three types of control channels
Broadcast channel (BCH)
Common Control channel (CCCH)
Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)

Each control channel consists of several logical channels.

BCH and CCCH forward control channels are implemented on certain
ARFCN channels, and are allocated time slots in a specific way. Only 34
ARFCN are used for broadcast purposes.
BCH and CCCH forward control channels are allocated only TS0 and
are broadcast only in certain frames within a repetitive 51 frame
sequence (51 multiframe is also called control channel multiframe) on
those ARFCN which are designated as broadcast channels.
TS1 thru TS7 carry regular TCH channels. The ARFCN designated as
broadcast still carry data in 7 remaining slots
GSM spec defines 34 ARFCNs as broadcast channels.
For each broadcast channel, frame 51 does not contain BCH/CCCH
forward channel data, and is considered to be idle frame.
The reverse channel CCCH is able to receive subscriber transmission
during TS0 of any frame, even the idle frame
DCCH data may be sent during any time slot and any frame. Entire
frames are dedicated to certain DCCH transmissions



45
GSM Control Channels (Contd)
Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)
BCCH operate only on forward link

The broadcast channel operates on forward link of specific ARFCN
within each cell, and transmits data only in first time slot TS0 of certain
GSM frames. The other 7 timeslots are available for TCHs

The BCCH channel is used as a beacon for all nearby mobiles, to
identify and lock on to.
The BCCH provides synchronization for all mobiles within a cell,
sometimes monitored by mobiles in neighboring cells so that received
power can be estimated and MAHO decision may be made by out of
cell mobiles

BCCH is defined by three separate channels which are given access to
Ts0 during various frames of the 51 frame sequence
Frequency Correction channel
Synchronization Control Channel
Broadcast Control Channel





46
Control Channel Multiframe
Signaling frame structure
: Frequency Correction channel
: Broadcast Control channel
: Synchronization Control Channel
47
Broadcast channels
Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)
Broadcasts information such as cell and network identity, and
operating characteristics of the cell such as current control
channel structure, channel availability, and congestion
A list of channels that are currently in use within a cell
Frames 2 thru 5 in every multifarme ( 4 out of 51) contain BCCH
data
Ts0 in Rest of the frames in 51 multiframe contain other BCCH
channels such as FCCH and SCH, CCCH or an idle frame.

Frequency Correction channel (FCCH)
Special freq burst which occupies slot 0, in frame 0, and is
repeated every 10 frames
It allows each mobile unit to synchronize its local oscillator to the
exact freq of the base station





48
Broadcast channels
Synchronization Control Channel (SCCH)
Special freq burst which occupies slot 0, in frame 1, and is
repeated every 10 frames
Identifies serving base station, while allowing each mobile to
frame synchronize with base station
Frame number ( 0-2,715,647) is sent with base station identity
code during the SCCH burst.
A mobile could be as far away as 30 Kms from the serving base
station, it is often necessary to adjust the timing of the mobile,
such that the received signal at the base is synchronized with the
base station clock
A base station issues course timing advancement commands to
the mobile over SCCH





49
Common Control Channels
CCCH are used to communicate between MS (Mobile Stations) and BTS (Base
Transceiver Stations).
The CCCH are used in setting up calls from either the MS or network side, and are
necessary to establish the dedicated link with the network. Three different types of
CCCH are defined: Paging Channel (PCH), Random Access Channel (RACH),
Access Grant Channel (AGCH).
In 51 TDMA multiframe TS0 of channels 2 to 5 are used for BCCH, Ts0 of frames 0,
10, 20 and so on are used by FCCH , while Ts0 of frames 1, 11, 21 etc for SCH
bursts. Rest of the TS0 slots in the multiframe are used for CCCH.
Paging channels: Notify a mobile sunbscriber of an incoming call or a text
message. The paging channel transmits the International Mobile Subscriber
Identity (IMSI) of the destination mobile, along with the request to send back an
ack.

Random Access channels (RACH): RACHs are in reverse links from a mobile
subscriber to the BTS. Used by a mobile to
Acknowledge the page
To originate a call
RACH uses slotted ALOHA
All mobiles must request access or ack a PCH within TS0 of the GSM frame.
At BTS every frame (even the idle frame) will accept the RACH in TS0

50
Common Control Channels (Contd)
Access Grant Channel (AGCH): The BTS responds with the
assignment of ARFCN and TS number for speech communication ,
and also dedicated stand alone control channel (DCCH).
After the MS has previously requested access to the network by
sending a message over the RACH (Random Access Channel).
The AGCH assigns resources to the user who has requested access to
the network, and the BTS allocates a TCH (Traffic Channel) or SDCCH
(Stand-Alone Dedicated Control Channel) to the MS, allowing it access
to the network.


51
Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH)
The dedicated control channels use physical channels that are assigned to
specific terminals. These channels are bidirectional like traffic channels, and
have same format in both directions. Like TCH they can exist on any
ARFCN and TS except TS0 of the BCH ARFCN
There are three types of dedicated control channels in GSM.
Standalone dedicated control channels (SDCCH)
The slow- and fast-associated control channels(SACCH and FACCH)
are used for transmissions of control messages between the mobile
station and the base station during a call.
The FACCH is transmitted over traffic channel for short durations (traffic
stealing)
Has higher priority as compared to voice
When network needs it substitutes FACCH for all or part of the traffic
channel.
52
Standalone Dedicated Control Channels
(SDCCH)
Standalone dedicated control channels (SDCCH) are used for
transferring signaling messages between MSs and BTSs when a
call is not in progress, but a mobile has established a connection
with a BTS, and just before TCH assignment is issued by a BTS.
The SDCCH has following functions
It ensures that mobile and BTS stay connected, while base station and
MSC verify the subscriber unit and allocate resources for a mobile
SDCCH is used to send authentication and alert messages as the
mobile synchronizes itself with the frame and waits for a TCH.
SDCCH may be assigned its own physical channel or may occupy TS0
of the BCH if not much demand for for BCH or CCCH traffic
SDCCH; an intermediate and temporary channel which accepts a newly
completed call, and holds the traffic while waiting for the base station to
allocate a TCH


53
The Slow Associated Control Channels

SACCH:
Always associated with a TCH or SDCCH, and maps to the same
physical channel (Look at the frame structure, channel 12 carries
SACCH for full rate transmission. For half rate 12 and 25 channels are
used, in speech/SDCCH multiframe.
All the eight slots are used for each of the eight full rate subscribers (16
half rate subscribers) on a ARFCN
Each ARFCN carries SACCH data for all its current users
Carries general information between a mobile and BTS
On the forward channel
Slowly changing data, such as transmit power level instructions, and
specific timing advancement instruction.
On the reverse channel
Information about received signal strength, quality of TCH, as well as BCH
measurement results from neighboring base stations


54
Fast-Associated Control Channels
FACCH carries urgent messages
Essentially same type of information as SDCCH
Is bidirectional
FACCH is assigned whenever SDCCH has not been dedicated for a particular
user, and there is an urgent message such as handoff
FACCH accesses the time slot by stealing frames from the traffic channel to
which it is assigned. .
Done by setting 2 bits called stealing bits, in a TCH forward channel burst

55
Summary OF Different Logical channels and their directions
Logical Channel Transmitting directions
TCH (Traffic control Channel) MS BTS
FACCH (Fast associated control
channel)
MS BTS
BCCH Broadcast control channel MS BTS
FCCH (Freq correction control
channel)
MS BTS
SCH (Synch control channel) MS BTS
RACH ( Random Access channel) MS - BTS
PCH (Paging Channel)) MS BTS
AGCH (access grant channel) MS BTS
SDCCH (Standalone Dedicated
Control Channels)
MS BTS
SACCH (Slow Associated Control
Channels)

MS BTS

56
PSTN
MSC
Mobile initiating a call
(1)
Step (1): MS initiates a call using RACH ( dials the destination address number)
Step (2) When base station receives RACH, it determines the location of the requesting
Mobile and its transmitted power level.
Step (3) base station responds over Access Grant channel and assigns SDCCH
Step (4): Mobile tunes to SDCCH
Step (5) Mobile waits for SACCH (associated with assigned SDCCH) Which informs it
about power level and time advance
Step (6) Using SDCCH Authentication of Mobile (MSC and HLR) takes place
Step (7) PSTN connects the dialed party to the MSC, and the MSC switches the
path to the serving Base station
Step (8): Base station assigns TCH (ARFCN and slot number) using SDDCH
Step (9): the mobile retunes to the traffic channel (ARFCN)
Step 10:call established



(2)
(3)
(4), (5) (9)
(6)
(6) Phone
(7)
(7)
(8)
(10) Call established
57
GSM call Process: call initiated by PSTN (contd)
Similar
Except The base station broadcasts a page request in PCH
message during TS0 Within an appropriate frame
Mobile station locked on to same ARFCN, hears the page and
replies with RACH acknowleding the page
The base station uses AGCH on the CCCH to assign the mobile unit
to a new physical channel for connection to SDCCH and SACCH,
while the network and serving base stations are connected
Once the subscriber establishes timing advance and authentication,
the BS via SDCCH assigns ARFCN and TS for the TCH ( both
forward and reverse)

58
Frame Structure for GSM
Five types of data bursts
Normal (TCH, DCCH) in all ARFNCs and time slots except TS0 of BCH
ARFCN on both forward and reverse channels
FCCH (Freq control channel); Ts0 of BCH ARFCNs for frames 0, 10, 20
etc of 51 multiframe on forward broadcast channels
SCCH burst:Ts0 of BCH ARFCNs for frames 1,11 etc. On forward
broadcast channels
RACH burst: On reverse channels of ARFCN
Used by all mobiles to access the service
Dummy Burst: filler information on unused time slots on the forward link








59
GSM Frame structure
60
Speech Coding
The full rate speech codec in GSM is described as Residually Excited linear
predicter code enhanced by Long Term Prediction (GSM 06.10 RPE-LTP).
Basically, the encoder divides the speech into short-term predictable parts,
long-term predictable part and the remaining residual pulse. Then, it
encodes that pulse and parameters for the two predictors. The decoder
reconstructs the speech by passing the residual pulse first through the long-
term prediction filter, and then through the short-term predictor.
Note that the Phase 2 of GSM defines a new half rate speech
encoder (GSM 06.20 RPE-LTP).
61
Speech Coding (Contd)
62
Speech Coding (Contd)
Channel coding introduces redundancy into the data flow in order to allow
the detection or even the correction of bit errors introduced during the
transmission
The speech coding algorithm produces a speech block of 260 bits every 20
ms (i.e. bit rate 13 kbit/s). In the decoder, these speech blocks are decoded
and converted to 13 bit uniformly coded speech samples. The 260 bits of
the speech block are classified into two groups.
The 78 Class II bits are considered of less importance and are
unprotected.
The 182 Class I bits are split into 50 Class Ia bits and 132 Class Ib bits
Class Ia bits are first protected by 3 parity bits for error detection. Class Ib
bits are then added together with 4 tail bits before applying the convolutional
code with half rate and constraint length K=5.
Type 2 bits are not considered important enough to be provided FEC
protection
The number of bits is thus 2 (53 +136) +78 = 378+78 = 456 bits
Split into 8 blocks of 57 bits each
456bits in 20 msecs
Speed= 450/20Kbs = 22.8 Kbps
63
Speech Coding (Contd)
64
Speech Coding (Contd)
Speech encoder takes advantage of the fact
That in normal conservation, each person speaks for about 40 %
of the time
It incorporates Voice activity detector, in speech coder, and
operates in Discontinuous transmission mode (DTX)
Providing longer subscriber battery life
Reducing instantaneous radio interference, since GSM
transmitter is inactive during silent periods.
A background is introduced at the receiver to compensate fro
annoying switching muting which occurs due to DTX
65
Coding for Data Channels
The coding for GSM full rate data (TCH/F 9.6) is based on handling
60 bits of user data at 5 ms intervals.
The user tx rate is 9.6 kbps, but the actual rate is brought up to 12 Kbps
in modem through channel coding in the Terminal equipment (used for
error detection in wireline communications)
240 bits of user data (20msec) are applied with four trailing bits to a
half rate punctured convolution coder with constraint length of 5.
The number of bits after half rate convolution coding = 2*(240+4) =
488
Since punctured code is used, 32 bits are not transmitted

; ie number of bits = 488-32 = 456.
The data is separated into 4 blocks of 114 bit bursts, that are
applied in an interleaved fashion to consecutive time slots
66
Channel coding for control channels
GSM control channels are 184 bits long. And are encoded using
shortened binary cyclic fire code, followed by half rate convolution
coder
The fire code provides 40 parity bits.
Four tail bits are added to clear the convolution coder shift register.
The number of bits = 184+40+4= 228
Now it is encoded using half rate convolution coding with constraint
length of 5
The number of coded bits = 228* 2= 456
67
Interleaving
To reduce the effect of fading on the received data, the 456 encoded bits
within each 20 msecs are broken into 8, 57 bit sub blocks. These eight
blocks are spread over eight consecutive TCH time slots.

If a burst is lost due to interference or fading, channel coding ensures that
enough bits are still received correctly to allow the error correction to work.

Interleaving is meant to decorrelate the relative positions of the bits
respectively in the code words and in the modulated radio bursts.

The aim of the interleaving algorithm is to avoid the risk of loosing
consecutive data bits.


A
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
7

B
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(0a, 4b), (1a, 5b), (2a, 6b), (3a, 7b), (4a, 0b), (5a, 1b), (6a, 2b), (7a, 4b)
68
Interleaving
69
Ciphering
Ciphering modifies the contents of 8 interleaved blocks thru the use
of encryption known only to a particular mobile and the BTS
Security is enhanced by the fact that encryption algorithm is
changed from a call to call

70
Modulation and Burst Format
MODULATION
GSM uses 0.3 BT GMSK
0.3 describes the 3 dB Bandwidth of Gaussian pulse shaping filter in relation
to the bit rate.
In GMSK the binary I and binary 0 is represented by shifting the carrier
by +- 67.708 Khz (one fourth of the channel data rate of 270.833 Khz)
This minimizes the BW occupied by the Modulation spectrum, thus
improves the channel capacity
The MSK modulation signal is passed thru the Gaussian filter to smooth the
rapid freq transition which would otherwise spread the energy into adjacent
channel
Burst Format
Burst format adds binary data to the ciphered block , in order to help
synchronization and equalization of the received signal
71
Modulation/Demodulation (Contd)
DEMODULATION
The signal to be demodulated is determined by ARFCN and TS.
The appropriate TS is demodulated with the aid of synchronization
data provided by burst fomatting.
After demodulation the binary information is deciphered , de-
interleaved, channel decoded and speech decoded
72
CDMA Digital Cellular
73
What is CDMA
Uses same spectrum as AMPS
Access and air Interface
Uses Direct Sequence Spread spectrum
Freq reuse is 1
There are 3 systems
IS-95, W-CDMA and CDMA-2000


74
Advantages of CDMA
Freq Diversity: uses a wide band per
channel hence Freq diversity is bulit in
Privacy: built in since Spread spectrum
has noise like characteristics (also uses
scrambling)
Graceful degradation
Gradual degradation as more users use the
system
75
Preliminary material: Walsh codes
Orthogonal codes have following properties
Each code has equal number of 1 and 0
The cross-correlation between the codes is zero
L.L Walsh introduced a complete set of binary orthogonal codes.
The codes have following characteristics:
The N*N matrix is represented by
NxN matrix
1
st

Quadrant
2nd
Quadrant
3rd
Quadrant
4th
Quadrant
Make the 1
st
, 2
nd
, 3
rd
quadrant identical, and invert the fourth
b b
b b
NxN matrix
Walsh codes are also known as Hadamard code
76
Preliminary material: Walsh codes (Contd)
b b
b b
1 1
1 0
=
0 0
0 1
0r
2x2
2x2 Walsh codes

Code 1= 11 or 00
Code 2= 00 or 01
b b
b b
1 1
1 0
1 1
1 0
1 1
1 0

0 0
0 1
4*4
4*4

=
=
0 0
0 1
0 0
0 1
0 0
0 1
1 1
1 0
or
4*4
Thus the codes ate
W0 = 1111 or 0000
W1= 1010 or 0101
W2= 1100 or 0011
W3 = 1001 or 0110
We can then keep on extending till we get NxN matrix.
Each column represents a binary code
These codes are orthogonal to each other
77
Preliminary material: Walsh codes (contd)
These Walsh codes are used in Forward IS-95 channel. Codes are stored in a ROM
and used:
Forward channel spreading over 1.2288 megachips per second
Unique identification of a mobile in IS-95.
Four types of forward channels
Pilot (W0 code)
Synch (W32 code)
Paging channels (W1 to W7) unused paging channels used for traffic
Traffic channels: w8 to W31, W33 to W63
78
Preliminary material: Long/Short PN code
A long PN code is generated from a 42 bit linear feedback shift
register.
2
42
-1 different codes= 4.398 *10
12
. These codes are used for
baseband data scrambling in the forward path. The chip rate is 1.2288
Mcps
Baseband data spreading in the reverse path. The reverse path does
not use Walsh codes for spreading
A 64 bit Walsh code can be identified by 6 (2
6
)bits. A mobile acks the
assigned Walsh code in the reverse path
The short PN code is generated from a pair of 15 bit linear feedback
shift registers, having a quadrature pair of 2
15
-1 =32,767 codes.
These codes are used for cell identification in a reused cell. The chip
rate of the short code is 1.2288 Mcps

79
Preliminary material: Power control in IS-95
Depending on the distance from the base station the received signal
strength is different for different mobiles. Note that in CDMA same freq is
shared by both mobiles
RSS1/RSS2 = (d2/d1)
r
.
If both mobiles tranmsit same power the received signal from a
mobile which is far away is lower as compared to received signal
from a mobile that is near.
Because both mobiles transmit at same freq, this problem is rather
acute, and its effect is to
Degrades performance
Reduces capacity
Could result in dropped calls

d1
d2
RSS1
RSS2
Near-far problem
80
Preliminary material: Power control in IS-95
Thus power control is applied with the goal that the received signal strength
for all mobiles should be equal. A mobile which is far away is instructed to
reduce its TX power etc. IS-95 applies power control as follows;
Reverse link open-loop power control
Reverse link close-loop power control
Forward link power control
Reverse link open-loop power control; The mobile computes the relative
path loss from the received signal, and adjusts its TX power accordingly.

Reverse link close-loop power control; The base station measures the
received signal strength form the mobile, and sends instruction in the
forward channel.Mobile gets instruction from Base station to adjust its power
up or down from base station.
A single power control bit 1 for power down by 0.5 db and 0 for
power up is inserted in Forward encoded bit stream every 1.25 msecs
(800 times a second)
Upon getting this command from the base station the mobile adjusts its
Tx power by +- 0.5 dbs. The dynamic range of the power control is +- 24
dbs

81
Preliminary material: Power control in IS-95
(Contd)
Forward link power control; The Base Station controls its power so
that a receiving station receives extra power to to overcome:
Fading
Interference etc
The base reduces its transmit power, and mobile calculated the
frame error rate. If a mobile detects a FER of 0.1 , it sends a request
to the cell site to stop reducing the power.
This adjustment process occurs every 15 to 20 msecs.
The dynamic range of power control is 6 db in steps of 0.5 db. All
mobiles are affected in this process

82
Preliminary material: Soft Handoff
In AMPS, when a MS moves from one cell to an adjacent cell, Hand-off
primarily assigns a new RF channel to a mobile. The hand-off provides
mobility and call continuity.

CDMA uses soft hand-off. This is possible because the adjacent cells use
same frequency. Spread spectrum mobiles share the same channel in
every cell.
Soft hand 0ff is then a process in which a mobile is using the same freq, but is
assigned to a different cell, and hand off is done without dropping the original
link.
Several base stations may simultaneously evaluate the received signal from a MS.
Then the MSC decides which version of the users signal is best at any time.

Also a mobile receives signals from adjacent base stations (transmitting at same
frequency). Normally the mobile will treat the signals received from other base
stations as interference.
But it is possible for the mobile to receive signals from both stations
simultaneously .
During hand-over the MS receives the same signal from its base station and
adjacent base station simultaneously, and when it moves to adjacent cell, it can
decide which base station is best for it.

83
Preliminary material: Soft Handoff (contd)
The mobile then needs 2 decoders to monitor and decode the signals,
incresaing the complexity of the mobile.
During hand-over 2 channels are used, reducing the capacity a little.
84
Preliminary material: IS-95 Forward
and reverse channels
The Forward and reverse channels use different spreading codes:
Reverse channel
The mobiles being at different distances from base station are not
synchronized with each other. They are asynchronous to each other
Walsh codes can not maintain their orthogonality, if they are not
synchronized. The transmissions from mobiles arrive at different times
at base stations
PN codes do not require synchronzation, and can be used more
successfully under these circumstances.

85
Freq and Channel Specs
IS-95
Reverse link; 824-849 Mhz
Forward link: 869 -894 Mhz
A PCS version in 1800-200 MHz range has also been
designed for international use
Many users share a common channel for transmission
Max user data rate : 9.6 Kbps
Channel chip rate 1.2288 Mchips/sec (for spreading)
Spreading factor =12288/9.6 = a factor of 128

86
CDMA digital cellular standard
Salient features of CDMA (IS-95)
Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
Allows multiple users to use same freq band at the
same time
System was designed to be compatible with AMPS
frequencies
Base stations and mobiles can function in dual mode
economically
In 1994 Qualcom made dual mode AMPS/CDMA
phones
Allows users in adjacent cells also to use same
frequencies
Eliminates frequency planning within a market
CDMA uses 1.25 Mhz wide radio channel, which is
exactly one tenth of the AMPS freq allocation to
provider A or B.

87
CDMA digital cellular standard
IS-95 uses a different modulation and spreading technique in each
direction
On the forward channel the base station transmits
simultaneously, user data for all mobiles in the cell by using a
different spreading sequence for each user.
A pilot code is also transmitted simultaneously, at a higher power
level, allowing all mobiles to use coherent carrier detection while
estimating the channel condition.
On reverse channel all mobile respond in an asynchronous
manner, and ideally have a constant signal level due to power
control applied by the base station
Speech coder: Qualcom 9600 Bps code excited linear predictive
coder (QCELP)
Using voice activity detection (VAD) the rate may be reduced to
1200 Bps during silent period. Intermediate rates of 2400, 4800 etc
may also be used
In 1995 a 14.4 bps coder using 13.4 kbps of speech data was
introduced (QCELP 13)

88
Freq and Channel Specs
Spreading is different in forward and reverse links
Forward direction: User data encoded using rate convolution
code, interleaved and spread by one of the 64 orthogonal
spreading sequences (hadamard/Walsh codes)
Each mobile in a cell is assigned a different spreading code
Providing perfect separation among the signals from different
users atleast for the cases where there is no multipath fading.
To reduce interference between users who use same spreading
sequence in different cells, and to provide desired wide band
spectral characteristics, all signals in a cell are scrambled, using
a pseudorandom sequence of length 2
15
Chips
Since all signals are spread synchronously, orthogonality is
preserved
A pilot channel code is also transmitted simultaneously, at a
higher power level, allowing all mobiles to use coherent carrier
detection while estimating the channel condition



89
Freq and Channel Specs (contd)
Reverse links
A Subscribers data is encoded using 1/3 rate convolution coding
After interleaving, each block of 6 encoded symbols is mapped to one of
the 64-ary orthogonal Walsh functions. This spreading gives a rate of
307.2 kilochips per stream (28.8 * 64/6), 9.6*3= 28.8
A four fold spreading giving a rate of 1.2288 Mchips/sec is achieved by
spreading the stream by user specific and base station specific codes
having periods of 2
42
-1, and 2
15
chips respectively
Rate 1/3 coding and mapping onto Walsh functions result in higher
tolerance for interference than would be realized from traditional
repetition spreading codes
The added robustness is important in reverse link due to non-coherent
detection and the in-cell interference received at the base station
Reverse Link power control
Mobile Tx power control to avoid near-far problem that arise from
varying received powers of the users
An open loop power control combined with closed loop power control is
used, such that the base station receives equal power from each of its
mobiles in the cell
The commands for close loop power control are sent at a rate of 800 bps,
bits stolen from speech frame





90
Freq and Channel Specs
Reverse links
Both at base and subscribers RAKE receivers are used to resolve
and combine multipath components, reducing the degree of fading
In IS-95 a three finger Rake is used at the base station.
IS-95 also provides base station diversity during soft handoffs;
A mobile making the transition maintains link with both the base stations
during the transition.
The mobile receiver combines the signals from the 2 base stations, the
same way as it would combine the signals with different multipath
components.
91
Rake receivers

3
a1
a2
a3
Modulator
Multipath Channel

a2

a3
Demodulator
Rake Rceiver
a1

c(t-t1)
+
c(t-t2)
+
c(t-t3)
+
When multiple versions of a
signal arrive more than one
chip interval apart the rake
receiver attempts to recover a
signals from multiple paths
and combine them

This method achieves better
performance than recovering
dominant signal and treat
others as noise
92
Freq and Channel Specs: Forward Link
The forward CDMA channel consists of
A Pilot channel
A synchronization channel
Up to 7 paging channels
Up to 63 forward traffic channels
Pilot channel allows a mobile to
acquire timing for forward CDMA channel
Provides phase reference for coherent demodulation
Allows a mobile to compare signal strength between
base stations for determining when to handoff
Pilot channel is implemented on channel 0 (W0:First
row of 64-ary Walsh function)
Pilot channel is 4 to 6 dbs higher than other channels
for easy detection




93
Freq and Channel Specs: Forward Link
Paging channels
Sends control info and paging messages to mobiles
Operates at 2.4, 4.8 and 9.6 Kbps
Up to seven paging channels Uses W1 to W7
Identifies calling partys number, and called partys number
Alerts/pages the mobile
Indicate the number of messages waiting
Assigns traffic channel to a mobile ( CDMA freq and Walsh code)
Neighbor list, CDMA channel list etc

Forward Traffic Channel (FTC)
Supports variable user data rates
9.6, 4.8, 2.4 and 1.2 Kbps
The modulation process in the figure on next page
Speech data rate applied to the transmitter is variable over the range
1.2 to 9.6 kbps




94
Forward Traffic Channel (TCH)
Forward Traffic Channel (FTC)
Supports variable user data rates
9.6, 4.8, 2.4 and 1.2 Kbps (Rate set 1)
The modulation process in the figure on next page
Speech data rate applied to the transmitter is variable over the
range 1.2 to 9.6 kbps
FTCH always continuously transmits power control subchannel
A 0 in a specifies bit specifies that the mobile increase its TX powwer by 1 db,
A 1 in a specifies bit specifies that the mobile decrease its TX powwer by 1 db,
Power control bits puncture the modulated data symbols at a rate of 800 bps. A
single power control bit replaces 2 data symbols.

http://www.sss-mag.com/pdf/cdmaover.pdf
95
Forward Modulation process: Convolution Encoder
and Repetition Circuit
Speech and data are encoded using
Half rate convolution coder, with constraint length of 9
The encoding process is described by generator vectors G0, and
G1, which are 753 and 561 octal respectively
The speech encoder uses voice activity detection, and reduces its
output from 9.6 to 1.2 Kbps during silent periods
In order to keep a constant baseband symbol rate of 19.2 kbps,
for user data rates of less than or equal to 9.6 Kbps, each
symbol from the coder is repeated, before interleaving
Number of repetitions after convolution encoder

Data rate. Number of repetitions
9.6 Kbps 1
4.8 2
2.4 4
1.2 8

Repetitions result in a constant data rate of 19.2 kbps


96
Modulation process Forward Channel (Contd)
Orthogonal covering
Each TCH after the data scrambling, is spread with a Walsh function
at a fixed chip rate of 1.2288 Mcps
Walsh code consists of 64 binary sequences, each of length 64 ,
which are orthogonal to each other
A user that is spread using Walsh function n is assigned channel
number n
Walsh seq repeats every 52.083 s, equal to one coded data
symbol (1/19200)
In other words each data symbol is spread by 64 Walsh chips
64 by 64 Walsh function matrix (HADAMARD matrix) is
generated as follows

97
Reverse CDMA Channel
User Data is grouped into 20 ms frames.
User data is first convolutionally encoded, block interleaved, , modulated
by 64-ary orthogonal modulation, and spread prior to modulation
Table shows modulation parameters
The speech and data rates supported are 9.6, 4.8, 2.4 and 1.2 Kbps
The reverse channel comprises of
Access channel
Fixed data rate of 4.8 Kbps
Used by mobile to initiate communications with the base station,
and respond to the pages
A random access channel, each user identified by their long
codes
Reverse Traffic Channel (RTC): variable data rate of 9.6. 4.8. 2.4 and
1.2 Kbps
Access and RTC share the same freq assignment and are identified by
distinct user long code.
The reverse channel may contain up to 32 ACs per supported paging
channel

98
Access Channel (MS-BS)
Registration messages; location, status, identification,
and other parameters for registration
Call initiation message: sending dialed digits etc
Page response message: for call termination etc
Authentication messages: Mobile ID validation etc
99
Reverse CDMA Channel (Contd)
Convolution Encoder and Symbol Repetition
A Subscribers data is encoded using 1/3 rate convolution coding, with
constraint length of 9
The three generator vectors g0, g1, and g2 are 557 (octal), 663 (octal), and
771 (octal) respectively
Coded bits are repeated before interleaving when data rate is less than 9.6
Kbps
Identical to forward channel.
After repetition the symbol rate is 28.8 Kbps

Block Interleaver
Performed after Convolution coding
Block interleaver spans 20 ms. ( 576 bits)
An array of 32 rows and 18 coloums
Code symbols are written by columns but read by row

100
Reverse CDMA Channel (Contd)
Data Burst Randomizer
Data Burst Randomizer takes advantage of voice activity on the reverse
channel.
It is used to reduce reverse link power during a quite period of speech by
pseudorandom masking out redundant symbols produced by symbol repetition.
The data burst randomizer generates a masking pattern of 1s and zeros to
randomly mask out the redundant data.
The masking pattern depends on Vocoder rate ( data rate).
101
Reverse CDMA Channel (Contd)
Variable data rate
Variable data rate 9.6, 4.8.2.4 and 1.2 Kbps
Code symbol repetition introduces redundancy for data rates less than 9.6
kbps.
A data randomizer is used to transmit certain bits while turning the
transmitter off at other times.
For data rates of 9.6 Kbps, all interleaver output bits are transmitted
When the data rate is 4.8 Kbps, half of the interleaver bits are transmitted,
and the mobile unit does not transmit 50 % of the time.
Data in each 20 ms frame are divided into 16 power control groups, each
with a period of 20/16 = 1.25 s.
Some power control groups are gated on, while some are gated off.
Data burst randomizer ensures that every repeated code symbol is
transmitted exactly once.
During gate off the mobile transmitter reduces its EIRP by 20 dB with
respect to most recent gated on period, or to noise floor which is greater
This reduces interference to other mobile stations operating on the same
reverse channel.

102
Cordless Telephony
103
Cordless Telephony
DECT, PACS, and PHS are three well-known
International standards for low-mobility low-
power wireless communication applications.
These standards have been developed for
operation in microcellular environments with
small cells typically several hundred meters in
diameter.
However, with fixed elevated antennas at
subscriber locations, and other enhancements
and modifications, the range can be extended to
several kilometers, making them suitable for
WLL applications in sparsely populated areas.
104
CT2 Standard for Cordless telephones
2
nd
generation cordless system introduced in GB in 1989
Used in both office and domestic environment
Within residential a single base station provides voice and data support, enabling
in-house communication, as well as connectivity to PSTN
Office: A small office supported by a single base station, providing service to a
number of handsets and data devices. In a large office multiple base stations can
be used in a cellular configurations, with the base stations connected to PBX.
Allows a subscriber to use a CT2 handset at a pubic telepoint ( A public telephone
booth or a lamp post to access PSTN)
Provides telepoint service
CT2 Services and features
Compact telephone with built in antenna
Digital version of analog cordless teelphone
Provides better speech quality (compared to analog CT)
More resistance to noise, interference and fading
Provides better sceurity
Calls are made after entering a PIN (personal ID Number)
Battery : typical talk time of 3 hrs, and a standby time of 40 hrs.
Uses dynamic channel assignment , minimizing system planning, and organization
within a crowded office or urban environment
105
CT2 Standard
Defines how a cordless fixed part (equivalent to base station) and
cordless portable part (equivalent to subscriber station
communicate over a radio link
The allocated freq in Europe and Hong kong are 864.1 to 868.1
Mhz, with 40 TDD channels, each with 100 Khz bandwidth
CT2 defines 3 air interface signaling layers, and speech coding
techniques
Layer 1 defines TDD, data muxing, and link initiation and handshaking
Layer 2 defines data acknowledgement, error detection, and link
maintenance
Layer 3 defines protocol used to connect CT2 o the PSTN

106
CT2 Radio Specs summary
107
CT2 Standard (contd)
Modulation:
all channels use Gaussian filtered binary FSK, with bit transitions constrained to be
continuous.
The commonly used BT = 0.3 for the Gaussian filter
Peak freq deviation is 25.2 Khz for all possible data patterns
Channel TX rate is 72 kbps
Speech Coding
Uses ADPCM with a bit arte of 32 Kbps
Complies with CCITT standard G.721
Duplexing
Uses TDD, with a frame duration of 2 msecs. Eqaully divided into reverse and forward
channel
32 Kbps digitized speech is transmitted at 64 Kbps.
Each 2 msec worth of speech is transmitted in 1 msec, with 1 msec gap used for
return path.
Eliminates the need for a paired frequency channel, or a duplex filter in the subscriber
unit.
Since each CT2 channel supports 72 Kbps, the remaining 8 kbps is used for control
data and burst syncronization.
Channel BW may be allocated to oe or more of the subchannels
Different possible sub-channel combinations are called multiplexes
Three different mulitplexes may be used in CT2
Range
Range is up to around 200 meters from the nearest base


108
Digital European Cordless Telephone
DECT features
Developed by ETSI, a universal standard, finalized in 1992
Cordless communications for High traffic density, allowing for high subscriber
densities
Short range
Low power access between portable and fixed parts
Range up to a few hundred meters
Broad range of applications and environment
Good quality for both voice and data application
speech quality comparable to wireline telephony,
Provides local mobility to portable users in an in-building PBX
Supports telepoint services
DECT is configured around OSI, allowing it to interconnect wide area fixed or mobile
networks such as ISDN or GSM to a portable subscriber population
a high level of security through advanced digital technology and encryption,
Flexible bandwidth allocation,
multiple service support, cost competitiveness, flexible deployment and simple
installation.
The range of DECT applications includes residential, PSTN and ISDN access,
wireless PABX, GSM access, Wireless Local Loop, Cordless Terminal Mobility CTM,
Local Area Network access supporting voice telephony, fax, modem, E-mail,
Internet,X.25 and many other services in a cost efficient manner.






109
Digital European Cordless Telephone (Contd)
After the first edition of the DECT standard was available in 1992,
the DECT standardisation work concentrated on the definition of the
Generic Access Profile (GAP) and other interworking profiles
DECT/GSM,
DECT/ISDN,
DECT/Radio Local Loop,
CTM and several data profiles).
This work and additional demands from the DECT market initiated
several extensions and enhancements
to the base standard enabling even more effective application of
DECT products which led to the 2nd edition of the base standard
being finalised by the end of 1995.

110
Digital European Cordless Telephone (Contd)
To stimulate interoperability between DECT equipment
from different manufacturers ETSI members started to
work on the definition of standard interworking profiles by
the end of 1993.
The Generic Access Profile GAP [9] was the first profile,
completed in 1994. It contains the protocol subset
required for the basic telephony service in residential
cordless telephones, business wireless PABX, and
public access applications;
It provides the basis for all other DECT speech
profiles. Interoperability testing for GAP has
been finished successfully.
111
Digital European Cordless Telephone
DECT Architecture
Based on OSI, A control plane (C-plane) and user plane
(U-plane) use the services of lower layers:
MAC layer
Physical layer
Paging capacity of up to 6000 subscribers
Subscriber can be in any cell
No need for registration
Provides wireless local loop, or metropolitan area access
May be used in conjunction with GSM
Dynamic channel allocation, based on signals from
portables
Designed to support hand offs only from pedestrians
112
Digital European Cordless Telephone
DECT Architecture: Physical layer
Uses a FDMA, Time Division Multiple Access, Time Division Duplex
(FDMA/TDMA/TDD) radio access methodology.
Basic DECT frequency allocation uses 10 carrier frequencies (FDM) in the
1880 to 1900 MHz range.
DECT is subdivided into timeframes repeating every 10 ms. Each frame
consists of 24 timeslots each individually accessible (TDMA) that may be
used for either transmission or reception.
For the basic DECT speech service, two timeslots - with 5 ms separation -
are paired to provide bearer capacity for typically 32 kbit/s (ADPCM G.726
coded speech) full duplex connections.
To simplify implementations for basic DECT the 10 ms timeframe has been
split in two halves (TDD); where the first 12 timeslots are used for FP
transmissions (downlink) and the other 12 are used for reverse link
transmissions (uplink).
Channel data rate = 1152 Kbps
Channel bandwidth = 1152*1.5 = 1.728 MHz
Each time slot has 480 bits = 1152*10/24
32 synch bits
388 data bits
60 bits guard time




113
DECT Functional Concept
Microcellular /picocellular cordelss subsystem that may integrate with PABX or to the
PSTN
DECT always consists of:
Portable Handset: Mobile terminal. Cordless terminal adapters (CTA) may be
used to provide FAX or video services
Radio Fixed Part: Equivalent to a base station. Supports physical layer of the
DECT Common Air Interface. One per cell. The radio transmission uses multi
carrier TDMA. FDX by using TDD
Cordless Controller (or cluster controller). Handles MAC, DLC and network layer
for one or cluster of RFPs
Is a central control unit for the DECT equipment . Speech coding is done on
CC using 32 Kbps ADPCM
Network Specific Interface unit: Supports the call completion facility in a multi
handset environment. Interface supported is G.732 based on ISDN standards
Supplementary services:
centralized AUTHENTICATION and Billing, if DECT used for Telepoint
services
Mobility management when used in multilocation PBXs

Note: system is limited by C/I, the capacity may be increased
And interference may be reduced by installiting RFPs in Closer proximity
114
DECT Functional Concept
115
DECT Radio Link
operating in the preferred 1880 to 1900 MHz band
Ten channels from 1881.792 to 1897.344 Mhz are specified with a
spacing of 1728 Khz.
Supports MC/TDMA/TDD
Ecah base station provides a TDM frame which supports 12 duplex
speech channels
Each time slot may occupy any of the DECT channels
The base station supports FHMA on top of TDMA/TDD
Without freq hopping, each DECT Base station supports 120
channels ( 10 freq, each supporting 12 duplex speech channels)
Each time slot may be assigned to a different channel to take
advantage of freq hopping, and to avoid interference from other
users

116
DECT Radio Link (Contd)
Channel types: 320 bits of user data is transmitted in B-field time slots
This supports 32 Kbps data stream per user
Only 4 parity bits are used for user data protection
DECT control info is carried in each time slot of an established call
These bits are assigned to one of the 4 logical channels, depending on control
information type
Control channel rate is 64 bits per 10 msecs = 6.4 Kbps.
1.6 kbps out of 6.4 kbps is used for CRC, and ).8 Kbps is for header information of the
control info.
Speech Coding:
32 Kbps ADPCM is used (CCITT G.721 recommendation)
For speech signals, no channel coding is used, as DECT provides freq hopping
for each time slot
Channel coding and inter-leaving
not used, as DECT is meant for indoor use, and delays are very small
For control channels 16 bit CRC is sued

117
DECT Radio Link (Contd)
Modulation
DECT uses tightly filtered GMSK
MSK is a form of FSK, where phase transitions between 2 symbols is
constrained to be continuous
Guassian shaping filter is used ( BT =0.3)
Antenna Diversity ( Not used for subscriber unit)
Spatial diversity implemented at Base station using 2 antennas.
Selective diversity ( antenna providing best signal for each time slot
selected)
Base station selection based on measures of signal strength of the
received signal to determine the best antenna ( Could be based on
interference also)
118
119
DECT Fixed Part Beacon function
RFP
Radio
Fixed Part
Channel
utilization
Paging
Synchronization
System Identity
Sys capabilities
120
Personal Access Communication System
PACS
121
Personal Access Communication System
PACS
Originally developed by Bellcore in 1992
PACS was developed in the United States and standardized by
the Joint Technical Committee (JTC) in 1994.
Designed to integrate all forms of wireless Local loop (WLL),
communication into one system with full telephone features.
Supports Voice, data and video images for indoor use and
microcell use
Bellcore developed PACS concept with LECs in mind and
called it Wireless Access communication system
Designed for a range of 500 meters
It operates in two wide duplex bands, 18501910 MHz (uplink)
and 19301990 MHz (downlink).
These bands were allocated by the FCC in three paired 5 MHz
and three paired 15 MHz bands for licensed wideband PCS
applications.
Also, a 10 MHz band (19201930 MHz) has been allocated for
unlicensed TDD operation. The air interface of PACS allows
frequency-division duplex (FDD) operation in the licensed band
and TDD operation in the unlicensed band


122
Personal Access Communication System
PACS
The PACS standard is based on FDD-TDMA with 200 channels (carrier
separation of 300 kHz).
Modulation and speech coding are /4-quadrature phase shift keying
(QPSK) and 32 kb/s ADPCM, respectively.
Bit rate per channel is 384 kb/s. Channel assignment is quasi static
autonomous frequency assignment/dynamic channel assignment
(QSAFA/DCA)
The standard is designed for low-mobility applications. However, operation
at high speed (several tens of kilometers per hour) is also possible.
Maximum transmission power of the portable unit is 200 mW, average
power 25mW.
123
PACS Architecture
Universal wireless access system for public and private telephone systems
Can connect to central office or PBX
Allocated frequencies include licensed and unlicenses spectrum
PACS architecture includes following components
Subscriber unit (fixed or portable)
Radio port
Radio port control unit (Radio port Connected to RPCU)
Access manager
Interface A provides radio interface between subscriber unit and radio port
Interface P supports protocols required to connect SU to RPCU through RP
Also connects RP to RPCU by using an embedded operation channel provided
within the interface
PACS standard contains a fixed distribution network and network
intelligence.
Only the last 500metrs of the distribution network is wireless





124
PACS System Architecture