Development of the cell theory:

Hooke in 1663, observed cork

(plant): named the cell
Schwann in 1800s states:
all animals are made of cells
Pasteurs work with bacteria ~ 1860 disproved
idea of spontaneous generation (living things
from nonliving)
Modern cell theory emerged by 1900
Chapter 4:
Cellular Form and Function
Modern Cell Theory
All organisms composed of cells and cell products.
A cell is the simplest structural and functional unit of life. There
are no smaller subdivisions of a cell or organism that, in themselves,
are alive.
An organisms structure and all of its functions are ultimately due to
the activities of its cells.
Cells come only from preexisting cells, not from nonliving
matter. All life, therefore, traces its ancestry to the same original
cells.
Because of this common ancestry, the cells of all species have many
fundamental similarities in their chemical composition and
metabolic mechanisms.
Cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA, which is
passed from the parent to the daughter cell.

Methods and tools
Microscopy
Compound light microscope
Magn. = eyepiece x objective, eg. 10x times 4x = 40x
Mostly for non-living specimen (dyes used)
Phase contrast microscope
Allows visualization of living cells
Electron microscope
Uses a beam of e-, resolution is thus not limited to light wavelength
Order of pm
Autoradiography
Label cells with radioactive atoms or molecules and follow their
location
Centrifugation
Sedimentation coefficient:
Depends on mass and particles size (radius)





Prokaryotes
bacteria, cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and archaea
absent nucleus, no mitochondria or chloroplasts, no ER and
Golgi
size of ribosomes similar to mitochondrial ribosomes in
eukaryotes
circular DNA is held within irregular nucleoid
oxidative phosphorylation takes place directly on plasma
membrane
do have ribosomes (30,50,70) and cytoskeletons
contain plasmids
some may organize into cellular communities (biofilms)
asexual reproduction (binary fission or budding) and
conjugation
have flagellum and cell walls (except gen. mycoplasma)
Cell Shapes
thin, flat, angular contours
irregular angular shapes,
> 4 sides
round to oval
disc shaped
Cell Shapes 2
squarish thick middle, tapered ends
taller than wide
long, slender
Stellate
nerve cells have extensions,
look starlike
Epithelial Cell Surfaces
Epithelial cells line organ surfaces and
cavities
Basal surface
cell rests on this lower surface
Lateral surface
the sides of the cell
Apical surface
exposed upper surface
Cell Size
Human cell size
most range from 10 - 15 m
egg cells (very large)100 m diameter, visible to
naked eye
nerve cell over 1 meter, muscle cell up to 30 cm,
(too slender to be seen)
Limitations on cell size
as cell enlarges, volume increases faster than
surface area so the need for increased nutrients
and waste removal exceeds ability of membrane
surface to exchange
Cell Surface Area and Volume
Evolving Perspective on Cells
Early study with light microscope revealed
surface membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm
Electron microscopes have much higher resolution
and revealed much greater details, such as the cell
ultrastructure of the cytoplasm
fibers, passageways and compartments, and organelles
surrounded by cytosol (a clear gelatinous component
also called intracellular fluid)
Cell Structure
Cell Structure 2
Defines cell boundaries
Controls interactions with other cells
Controls passage of materials in and out of cell
Appears as pair of dark parallel lines around cell
(viewed with the electron microscope)
intracellular face - side faces cytoplasm
extracellular face - side faces outwards
Structure described by fluid-mosaic theory
arrangement of mobile globular proteins embedded in
an oily film of phospholipids
Plasma Membrane
Plasma Membrane Preview
Membrane Lipids
Lipids constitute
90 to 99% of the
plasma membrane
Glycolipids
5% of the lipids, found
only on extracellular
face, contribute to
glycocalyx
Cholesterol
20% of the lipids, affects membrane
fluidity (low conc.. more rigid, high
conc.. more fluid)
Phospholipid bilayer
75% of the lipids, with hydrophilic heads
(phosphate) on each side and
hydrophobic tails in the center
motion of these molecules creates
membrane fluidity, an important quality
that allows self repair
Membrane Lipids 2
Membrane Proteins
Proteins constitute
only 1 to 10% of the plasma
membrane, but they are larger and
account for half its weight
Integral (transmembrane) proteins
pass through membrane, have
hydrophobic regions embedded in
phospholipid bilayer and hydrophilic
regions extending into intra- and
extracellular fluids
most are glycoproteins, conjugated
with oligosaccharides on the
extracellular side of membrane
Integral proteins (cont.)
may cross the plasma
membrane once or multiple
times
Peripheral proteins
adhere to intracellular
surface of membrane
anchors integral proteins to
cytoskeleton
Membrane Proteins 2
Membrane Protein Functions
Receptors
Second messenger systems
Enzymes
Channel proteins
Carriers and pumps
Motor molecules
Cell-identity markers
Cell-adhesion molecules
Protein Functions - Receptors
Cells communicate with chemical
signals that cannot enter target
cells
Receptors bind these messengers
(hormones, neurotransmitters)
Each receptor is usually specific
for one messenger
Second Messenger System
A messenger (epinephrine)
binds to a receptor
1

Receptor releases a G
protein
2

G protein binds to an
enzyme, adenylate cyclase,
which converts ATP to
cAMP, the 2
nd
messenger
3

cAMP activates a kinase
4

Kinases add P
i
, activates or
inactivates other enzymes
Enzymes in Plasma Membrane
Break down chemical
messengers to stop their effects
Final stages of starch and
protein digestion in small
intestine
Involved in producing second
messengers (cAMP)
Protein Functions - Channel Proteins
Formed by integral proteins
Channels are constantly open,
allow water and hydrophilic
solutes in and out
Gates open to three type of stimulants
ligand-regulated gates: bind to chemical
messenger
voltage-regulated gates: potential changes
across plasma membrane
mechanically regulated gates:physical
stress such as stretch and pressure
Gates control passage of electrolytes so
are important in nerve signals and
muscle contraction

Protein Functions - Channel Proteins 2
Protein Functions - Motor Molecules
A filamentous protein that arises
deep in the cytoplasm and pulls
on membrane proteins causing
movement:
within a cell (organelles)
of a cell (WBCs)
shape of cell (cell division,
phagocytosis)
Protein Functions - Carriers
Integral proteins that bind to solutes and
transfer them across membrane
Carriers that consume ATP are called
pumps
Protein Functions - Cell-identity Markers
Glycoproteins contribute to
the glycocalyx, a surface
coating that acts as a cells
identity tag
Protein Functions - Cell-adhesion Molecules
Membrane proteins that
adhere cells together and
to extracellular material
Glycocalyx
Surface of animal cells
CHO moieties of membrane glycoproteins
and glycolipids that retains a film of water

Functions
immune response to infection and cancer
basis of tissue transplant compatibility
cellular uptake of water, dissolved solutes
assists in cell adhesion, fertilization and
embryonic development

Structure
extensions of plasma membrane (1-2m) that
increase surface area for absorptive cells (by 15-
40x in intestine, kidney)
Brush border
on some cells, they are very dense and appear as
a fringe on apical cell surface
Milking action
protein filaments (actin) attach from the tip of
microvillus to its base, anchors to a protein mesh
in the cytoplasm called the terminal web and can
shorten pushing absorbed contents into cell
Microvilli
Cross Section of a Microvillus reveals
actin filaments
Cilia
Hairlike processes 7-10m long, 50-200 on cell surface
move mucus, egg cells
note that microvilli, unlike cilia, are extensions of the plasma
membrane
Covered by saline layer created by chloride pumps
Cilia beat in waves, sequential power strokes followed by
recovery strokes
Cross Section of a Cilium reveals
microtubules
Cilia 2
Axoneme has a 9+2 structure of microtubules
2 central microtubules stop at cell surface
9 pairs of peripheral microtubules continue into cell as
a basal body that acts as an anchor
dynein (motor protein) arms on one pair of peripheral
microtubules crawls up adjacent pair bending cilia
Sensory cells
some cilia lose motility and are involved in vision,
smell, hearing and balance
Cilium At Cell Surface
Flagella
Long whiplike structure that has an axoneme
identical to that of a cilium
the only functional flagellum in humans is the tail
of the sperm
Nucleus
Largest organelle
Nuclear envelope surrounds nucleus with a double
membrane punctures with nuclear pores
Contains DNA, the genetic program for a cells
structure and function
nucleolus = a subsection within the nucleus, where
rRNA is synthesized

Cell Structure
Rough ER
extensive sheets of parallel unit membranes with cisternae
between them and covered with ribosomes, continuous with
nuclear envelope
protein synthesis, in particular secretory proteins,
production of cell membranes
protein folding environment
Ca
2+
homeostasis
Smooth ER
lack ribosomes, cisternae more tubular and branch more
extensively, continuous with rough ER
function in lipid synthesis, detoxification, Ca
2+
storage and
signaling
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic Reticulum Diagram
Ribosomes
Small dark granules of protein and RNA free in
cytosol or on surface of rough ER
Interpret the genetic code and synthesize
polypeptides
Golgi Complex
Synthesizes CHOs, processes proteins from RER
and packages them into golgi vesicles
Golgi vesicles
irregular sacs near golgi complex that bud off cisternae
some become lysosomes, some fuse with plasma
membrane and some become secretory vesicles
Secretory vesicles
store a cell product
for later release
Note: in plants
vesicles are larger and
are called vacuoles

Lysosomes
Package of enzymes in a single unit membrane,
variable in shape
garbage brought by endosomes
Functions
intracellular digestion - hydrolyze proteins, nucleic acids,
complex carbohydrates, phospholipids and other substrates
hydrolytic enzymes work at pH = 5
autophagy - the digestion of worn out organelles and
mitochondrion
autolysis/apoptosis - programmed cell death
glucose mobilization - lysosomes in liver cells break down
glycogen
Microbodies
Peroxisome
Appear similar to lysosomes, lighter in color
Abundant in liver and kidney
Function
neutralize free radicals
produce H
2
O
2
in process of alcohol detoxification in the
liver, and in killing bacteria
break down excess H
2
O
2
with the enzyme catalase
break down fatty acids into acetyl groups
Glyosome (in plants)
important during germination
allows plants to break down fats into carbohydrates for
energy

Mitochondrion
Double unit membrane
Inner membrane contains folds called cristae
ATP synthesized by enzymes on cristae from energy extracted
from organic compounds
Space between cristae called the matrix
contains ribosomes and small, circular DNA (mitochondrial
DNA)
are semiautonomous: mDNA is replicated independently,
encodes for many proteins
others proteins (e.g. ribosomes) are encoded by nuclear DNA
Reproduce independently
of cell and live for 10 days
capable of triggering apoptosis
in plants:
chloroplasts contain their own DNA
carry out photosynthesis
Mitochondrion, Electron Micrograph
Cell wall
present in all procaryotes and some eukaryotes:
fungi, made of chitin
plants composed of cellulose
protection, structural support
not present in animals
Centrioles
not present in plants
Short cylindrical assembly of microtubules,
arranged in nine groups of three microtubules each
Two centrioles, perpendicular to each other, lie
near the nucleus in an area called the centrosome
these play a role in cell division
Other single centrioles migrate to plasma
membrane forming basal bodies of cilia or flagella
two microtubules of each triplet elongate to form the
nine pairs of peripheral microtubules of the axoneme
Perpendicular Centrioles Diagram
Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments (actin filaments)
made of protein actin, form network on cytoplasmic
side of plasma membrane called the membrane skeleton
supports phospholipids of plasma membrane, supports
microvilli and produces cell movement,
with myosin causes muscle contraction
Intermediate fibers
in junctions that hold epithelial cells together and resist
stresses on a cell
Microtubules
Microtubules
Hollow cylinder of 13 parallel strands called
protofilaments
(a long chain of globular protein units called tubulin)
Hold organelles in place and maintain cell shape
Form tracks to guide organelles and molecules to
specific destinations in a cell
Form axonemes of cilia and flagella, centrioles,
basal bodies and mitotic spindle
Not all are permanent structures and can be
disassembled and reassembled where needed
Microtubule Diagram
Cytoskeleton Diagram
Inclusions
Highly variable appearance, no unit membrane
Stored cellular products
glycogen granules, pigments and fat droplets
in plants: water vacuoles
Foreign bodies
dust particles, viruses and intracellular bacteria
Membrane Transport: Selective Permeability
Plasma membrane allows passage of some things
between cytoplasm and ECF but not others
Passive transport requires no ATP, movement of
particles across selectively permeable membrane,
down concentration gradient
filtration
simple diffusion
facilitated diffusion through channels
Active transport requires ATP, transports particles
up concentration gradient
carrier mediated (active transport) and bulk transport
Membrane Transport: Filtration
Movement of particles through a selectively
permeable membrane by hydrostatic pressure
Hydrostatic pressure - the force exerted on the
membrane by water
In capillaries, blood pressure forces water, salts,
nutrients and solutes into tissue fluid, while larger
particles like blood cells and protein are held back
Simple Diffusion
Simple diffusion is the movement of particles as a
result of their constant, random motion
Net diffusion is the movement of particles from an
area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration (down or with the concentration
gradient)
Diffusion Rates
Factors that affect rate of diffusion through a
membrane
Temperature - temp., motion of particles
Molecular weight - larger molecules move slower
Steepness of conc.gradient - difference, rate
Membrane surface area - area, rate
Membrane permeability - permeability, rate
Osmosis
Net diffusion of water
through a selectively
permeable membrane from
an area of more water, side
B (less dissolved solute) to
an area of less water, side
A (more dissolved solute)
Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis opposed by
filtration of water
back across
membrane due to
hydrostatic pressure
Amount of
hydrostatic pressure
required to stop
osmosis is called
osmotic pressure
Osmolarity
One osmole is 1 mole of dissolved particles
1M NaCl contains 1 mole Na
+
ions and 1 mole Cl
-

ions/L, both affect osmosis, thus 1M NaCl = 2 osm/L
Osmolarity = # osmoles/liter solution

Tonicity
Tonicity - ability of a solution to affect fluid
volume and pressure within a cell
depends on concentration and permeability of solute
Hypotonic solution
has low concentration of nonpermeating solutes (high
water concentration)
cells in this solution would absorb water, swell and may
burst (lyse)
Hypertonic solution
has high concentration of nonpermeating solutes (low
water concentration)
cells in this solution would lose water +shrivel (crenate)
Isotonic: no net movement
Membrane Transport: Carrier Mediated Transport
Proteins in cell membrane carry solutes through it
Specificity
solute binds to a receptor site on carrier protein that is
specific for that solute
Two types of carrier mediated transport are
facilitated diffusion and active transport
Exhibits saturation (see next slide)
Carrier Saturation
As concentration of solute , rate of transport up
to the point when all carriers are occupied and rate
of transport levels off at the transport maximum
Membrane Transport: Facilitated Diffusion
Passive transport of solute down its concentration
gradient, across membrane, with aid of a carrier
Solute binds to carrier, carrier changes shape and
releases solute on other side of membrane
Active Transport
Active transport of solute up its concentration
gradient, across membrane, carrier requires ATP

Carrier binds to ligand
ATP phosphorylates carrier
Carrier changes conformation
Carrier releases ligand on other side

Prominent example is the sodium-potassium pump
Sodium-Potassium Pump
3Na
+
bind to receptor, carrier phosphorylated,
changes conformation, releases Na
+
in ECF, binds
2K
+
, releases Pi, resumes conformation, releases K
+
Na+ = naverx,
3 signs
K+ = 2 signs
Functions of Sodium-Potassium Pump
Regulation of cell volume
cell swelling stimulates the Na
+
-

K
+
pump:
ion concentration, osmolarity and cell swelling
Heat production
Maintenance of a membrane potential
Na
+
-

K
+
pump keeps inside of membrane negative,
outside of membrane positive
Secondary active transport
transport of solute particles by carrier that does not
need ATP, but depends on the concentration gradient
provided by active transport pumps ...
Secondary Active Transport
Transport of glucose by
facilitated diffusion, along with
Na
+
by SGLT carrier (no ATP),
depends on Na
+
-

K
+
pump (uses
ATP)
Cotransport
When carrier transports 2 different solutes
simultaneously, or within one transport cycle
Symport - a carrier that transports both solutes in
the same direction
Antiport - a carrier that transports solutes in
opposite directions

Bulk Transport
Transport of large particles and fluid droplets
through membrane, using vacuoles or vesicles of
plasma membrane, uses a lot of ATP
Endocytosis - bulk transport into cell
Exocytosis - bulk transport out of cell
Endocytosis has three forms
phagocytosis- engulfing large particles by pseudopods
fluid phase pinocytosis
receptor mediated endocytosis
Phagocytosis

Fluid-phase Pinocytosis
Cell takes in droplets of ECF (along with dissolved
or broken down particles)
Plasma membrane dimples, then pinches off as
pinocytotic vesicle
Occurs in all human cells

Receptor Mediated Endocytosis
Receptors on membrane bind to specific molecules
in ECF, cluster together, then sink in, become
coated with a peripheral protein, clathrin, and
pinch off into cell as clathrin-coated vesicle
This occurs in the uptake of LDLs by endothelium
of blood vessels
Transcytosis uses this process to move a substance
across a cell
insulin absorbed into endothelial cell from blood by
RME, then transported out into tissues
Receptor Mediated Endocytosis
Receptor Mediated Endocytosis EM
Exocytosis
Eliminating or secreting material from cell and
replacement of plasma membrane
Exocytosis EM
Viruses are not living organisms
cells are 1-10 um
viruses are about two orders of magnitude smaller
main features:
protein coat = capsid
DNA or RNA, single or double stranded
obligate intracellulare parasites
bacteriophages target bacteria