Setha Pan-ngum

Introduction
Embedded & Real-time systems could be standalone
or connected
A real-time system is often composed from a number
of periodic (time triggered) and sporadic (event
triggered) tasks which communicate their result by
passing messages.
In a distributed real-time systems these messages are
sometimes sent between processors across a
communication device. (from Urban Bilstrup)

Introduction (cont.)
To guarantee that the timing requirements of all tasks
are met, the communications delay between a sending
task and a receiving task being able to access that
message must be bounded.
For examples
Control systems: between sensors and actuators via
central computer
Multiprocessors: between processors, tasks
communicating

Open System Interconnection
Intended for computers
Designed to solve compatibility
problem
Layers provide standard
interface and services
Embedded systems use some
standardisation ideas
Higher layers require lower
layers to work
OSI
Layers
Application user interface e.g. Internet explorer
Presentation data formatting e.g. compression and
encoding
Session handle overall connection e.g. OS,
scheduling programs
Transport ensures data transfer, error checking e.g.
TCP
Network logical addressing, routing e.g. IP (from
TCP/IP)
OSI cont.
Data link prepares data for transfer, physical
addressing such as Media Access Control (MAC)
Physical wires and cables, hubs, repeaters.
Embedded Communication
Point-to-point networks
Each node connected to every node
Simple and reliable
Dedicated links make it easy to meet real-time deadlines
Costly due to many wires required
Shared media networks
Nodes are connected via bus or other topologies
Less wiring and hence cheaper
Easily extendable by adding new nodes to network
Complex network protocol
Being the system of focus from now on
Basic network architectures
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memory
Internet
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From Urban Bilstrup
Complex distributed architecture
HMI
Tuners Playback
External
Wireless
Communication
System
Audio
modules
Audio
modules
Audio
modules
Audio
module
Gateway
MOST
GREEN CAN
Internal
Wireless
Communication
System
RED CAN
LIN
From Urban Bilstrup
Concepts
Event based communication
E.g. alarm, user inputs, requests for data from other
systems

State based communication
E.g. regular sensor readings
Predictability





Network resources &
qualitative parameters
Network resources
Bandwidth
Buffer space
Protocol efficiency (data bits/bandwidth). Depends on
Message overhead
Media access overhead
Determinacy (ability to calculate worst-case response
time)
Robustness
cost
Event based system
Efficient use of network resource
Needs high reliability (event based data comes once in
a while)
May need acknowledgement
Hard to predict delay in case of overloading (e.g.
alarm)

State based system
Messages sent at predefined, regular intervals.
Less efficient due to regular occupation of
communication channel by nodes.
More tolerance. Missed message may be ok, since the
next one will be coming.
Transient data problem. Sending node has to keep
data long enough for other to see. E.g. button pressed
may need to be repeated.
Protocol
No best protocol, depends on applications.
Embedded systems tends to focus on level 1 and 2 of
OSI model, for simplicity and overhead reduction.
Physical link (Layer 1) transmission medium
Data link (Layer 2) provides Media Access Control
(MAC)

15
Advanced communication principles [6]
Layering
Break complexity of communication protocol into pieces easier to design and
understand
Lower levels provide services to higher level
Lower level might work with bits while higher level might work with packets of data
Physical layer
Lowest level in hierarchy
Medium to carry data from one actor (device or node) to another
Parallel communication
Physical layer capable of transporting multiple bits of data
Serial communication
Physical layer transports one bit of data at a time
Wireless communication
No physical connection needed for transport at physical layer
16
Parallel communication [6]
Multiple data, control, and possibly power wires
One bit per wire
High data throughput with short distances
Typically used when connecting devices on same IC or
same circuit board
Bus must be kept short
long parallel wires result in high capacitance values which requires more
time to charge/discharge
Data misalignment between wires increases as length increases
Higher cost, bulky
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Serial communication [6]
Single data wire, possibly also control and power wires
Words transmitted one bit at a time
Higher data throughput with long distances
Less average capacitance, so more bits per unit of time
Cheaper, less bulky
More complex interfacing logic and communication protocol
Sender needs to decompose word into bits
Receiver needs to recompose bits into word
Control signals often sent on same wire as data increasing protocol
complexity
18
Wireless communication [6]
Infrared (IR)
Electronic wave frequencies just below visible light spectrum
Diode emits infrared light to generate signal
Infrared transistor detects signal, conducts when exposed to
infrared light
Cheap to build
Need line of sight, limited range
Radio frequency (RF)
Electromagnetic wave frequencies in radio spectrum
Analog circuitry and antenna needed on both sides of transmission
Line of sight not needed, transmitter power determines range
Media Access Control (MAC)
Many protocols are taken from computer networks

Connection oriented protocols
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CA
Polling
Token passing
TDMA
Binary countdown (Bit dominance)
Protocol overview [1]
Connection oriented protocols
[5]
2 nodes per each connection only
If nodes are not directly connected, data is relayed
Deterministic delay between directly connected nodes,
high delay for indirectly connected nodes
Connection oriented protocols
cont.
Suitable to systems with low communication
requirements.
Node with pass-through traffic can be fully occupied.
E.g. telephone network service
Polling [5]
Simple and deterministic
Needs a master node
Master periodically polls slave nodes
Consumes bandwidth
E.g. military aircraft communication
Simple slave nodes, complex master

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
[5]
Masters broadcasts sync signal to synchronise all
clocks
Then each node sends data on its time slot.
Similar but more efficient than polling (synchronise
once vs polling all nodes individually.
more complex nodes due to timing requirements.
TDMA cont.
Fixed length messages (inflexible)
E.g. satellite communications
Token ring [5]
Ring shape network
Token (signal) is passed from node to node
Node can hold token, send message all the way round
the ring, and pass token on
Deterministic under heavy load
.

Token ring cont.
Some token overhead
Can add priority by having extra field in token
More complexity in detecting token lost
Cable break disrupts network (needs dual ring)
E.g. many Wide Area Networks (WANs)
Token bus [5]
Similar to token ring
Token is passed via bus simultaneously
Cable break can be dealt with by reconfiguration (like
when a node is added to or taken off the network.
Applied in manufacturing
Binary countdown (Bit
Dominance)
All nodes wait for channel to be free before sending.
Simultaneous channel access (contention) resolved by
detecting broadcasting signal for unique identification
Bus must provide dominance bit e.g. 1 can override 0
A node stop transmitting when seeing dominance bit
opposite to its own broadcasting.
Hence messages require priority as IDs rather than
node IDs.
Good throughput & high efficiency (no contention
loss)
Binary countdown cont. [5]

Binary countdown cont.
Heavy load can cause long delay for low priority
messages (no bound)
Applied in industrial and automotive Controller Area
Network (CAN) and SAE standard J 1850
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Dectection (CSMA/CD) [5]
Nodes wait for idle channel before transmitting.
When simultaneously transmission is detected, each
node stops and waits for random time before
resending.
CSMA/CD cont.
Easy to add or take off new nodes without
initialisation and configuration
Low overhead at light traffic
Unbound overhead at heavy traffic (messages keeps
colliding) hence low determinacy and efficiency.
Requires detection circuit

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (SCMA/CA) [5]
CSMA/CA cont.
Hybrid between light traffic efficiency of CSMA/CA
and heavy traffic efficiency of token-based protocols.
Nodes waits for free network before sending.
When collision happens, jam signal is sent to notify all
nodes, synchronises clocks and start contention time
slot.
Unique time slot is assigned to each node
Rotate time slot for fairness
Network return to normal state when all slots are
unused.
CSMA/CA cont.
Variations
Reservation CSMA no. of slots equal to no. of nodes
Not practical if networks has many nodes.
No. of slots less than no. of nodes randomly allocate
slots to nodes.
Media access comparison [5]
Automotive standards [7]
Controller Area Network (CAN)
Event triggered, Arbitration
Time Triggered Protocol (TTP)
Time triggered, TDMA
Local Interconnect Network (LIN)
Time triggered, master-slave
Media Oriented System Transport (MOST)
Manufacturing Automation
Standards [7]
Controller Area Network (CAN)
Arbitration
Process Network (P-NET)
Token passing and master-slave
PROcess Field Bus (PROFIBUS)
Token passing and master-slave
Factory Instrumentation Protocol (World FIP)
Centralised arbitration
Military Standards [7]
MIL-STD 1553
The current 1553 data bus is widely used in military applications, with a
nominal throughput of 1 Mb/s.

MIL-STD 1773
Mil-Std-1773 defines a fiber optic bus. This system is widely used for on-
board command and telemetry transfer between military spacecraft
components, subsystems and instruments, and within complex
components themselves. 1773 AS, has a dual rate of 1 Mb/s or 20 Mb/s.

ARINC 429
A commercial aircraft data bus. It is widely implemented in the
commercial aircraft avionics industry. Performance is 100Kb/s or 12.5Kb/s.


References
1. Upender B, Koopman P, Embedded communication protocol
options, Proc. to the 5
th
annual embbeded system conference, 1993
2. Rollins L, Embedded communication
3. Kopetz H, Real-time system design principles for distributed
embedded applications, Kluver, 1997
4. Liu J, Real-time systems, Prentice-Hall, 2000
5. Upender B, Koopman P, Communication protocols for embedded
systems, Embedded systems programming, Nov 1994.
6. Vahid F, Givargis T, Embedded system design a unified
hardware/software introduction, Wiley, 2002
7. Bilstrup U, Real-time communication