PN and Metal-Semiconductor Junctions: 4.1 Building Blocks of The PN Junction Theory

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C.
Hu) Slide 4-1

Chapter 4 PN and Metal-Semiconductor J unctions
PN junction is present in perhaps every semiconductor device.

diode
symbol
N P
V
I
+
4.1 Building Blocks of the PN J unction Theory
V
I
Reverse bias Forward bias
Donor ions
N-type
P-type
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-2
4.1.1 Energy Band Diagram of a PN Junction
A depletion layer
exists at the PN
junction where n ~ 0
and p ~ 0.
E
f
is constant at
equilibrium
E
c
and E
v
are smooth,
the exact shape to be
determined.
E
c
and E
v
are known
relative to E
f
N-region P-region
(a)
E
f

(c)
E
c

E
v

E
f

(b)

E
c

E
f

E
v

E
v

E
c

(d)

Depletion
layer
Neutral
P-region

Neutral
N-region
E
c

E
v

E
f

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu)
Slide 4-3
4.1.2 Built-in Potential
Can the built-in potential be measured with a voltmeter?

(b)

(c)
(a)
N-type
N
d
P-type
N
a
N
d
N
a

E
f

E
c

E
v

q
|
bi

x
N
x
P

x
0

V
|
bi

4.1.2 Built-in Potential
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
d
c
i
a c
bi
N
N
n
N N
q
kT
A B ln ln
2
|
d
c
kT A q
c d
N
N
q
kT
A e N N n ln = = =

N-region
2
ln
i
a d
bi
n
N N
q
kT
= |
2
2
ln
i
a c
kT B q
c
a
i
n
N N
q
kT
B e N
N
n
n = = =

P-region
4.1.3 Poissons Equation
Gausss Law:
c
s
: permittivity (~12c
o
for Si)
: charge density (C/cm
3
)
Poissons equation
A x

E ( x )

E ( x + A x )

x
4.2.1 Field and Potential in the Depletion Layer
On the P-side of the
depletion layer, = qN
a

On the N-side, = qN
d

4.2 Depletion-Layer Model
s
a
qN
dx
d
c
=
E
) ( ) (
1
x x
qN
C x
qN
x
P
s
a
s
a
= + =
c c
E
) ( ) (
N
s
d
x x
qN
x
- =
c
E
(a)
N
P
N
d
N
a
Depletion Layer Neutral Regi on
x
n
0
x
p

(b)
x
x
p
x
n

(c)
qN
d
qN
a
x

x
n
x
p

(d)
(f)
E
c
E
f

E
v
|
bi
,

built-in potential
P
N
0
x
n
x
p
x
|
bi
(e)
Neut ral Region
V
N
N
N P
P
P
The electric field is continuous at x = 0.

N
a
|x
P
| = N
d
|x
P
|

Which side of the junction is depleted more?
A one-sided junction is called a N
+
P junction or P
+
N junction
(a)
N
P
N
d
N
a
x
n
0
x
p

(b)
x
x
p
x
n

(c)
qN
d
qN
a
x

x
n
x
p

(d)
(f)
E
c
E
f

E
v
|
bi
,

built-in potential
P
N
0
x
n
x
p
x
|
bi
(e)
Neut ral Region
V
N P

Slide 4-8
On the P-side,
Arbitrarily choose the
voltage at x = x
P
as V = 0.
On the N-side,
2
) (
2
) ( x x
qN
x V
P
s
a
=
c
2
) (
2
) (
N
s
d
x x
qN
D x V =
c
2
) (
2
N
s
d
bi
x x
qN
=
c
|
(a)
N
P
N
d
N
a
x
n
0
x
p

(b)
x
x
p
x
n

(c)
qN
d
qN
a
x

x
n
x
p

(d)
(f)
E
c
E
f

E
v
|
bi
,

built-in potential
P
N
0
x
n
x
p
x
|
bi
(e)
Neut ral Region
V
N
N
P
P

Slide 4-9
4.2.2 Depletion-Layer Width
V is continuous at x =0
If N
a
>> N
d
, as in a P
+
N

junction,
What about a N
+
P junction?
where
density dopant lighter N N N
a d
1 1 1 1
~ + =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = =
d a
bi s
dep N P
N N q
W x x
1 1 2 | c
N
d
bi s
dep
x
qN
W ~ =
| c 2
qN W
bi s dep
| c 2 =
(a)
N
P
N
d
N
a
x
n
0
x
p

(b)
x
x
p
x
n

(c)
qN
d
qN
a
x

x
n
x
p

(d)
(f)
E
c
E
f

E
v
|
bi
,

built-in potential
P
N
0
x
n
x
p
x
|
bi
(e)
Neut ral Region
V
0
~ =
a d N P
N N x x
| | | |
P N
EXAMPLE: A P
+
N junction has N
a
=10
20
cm
-3
and N
d
=10
17
cm
-3
. What is a) its built in potential, b)W
dep
, c)x
N
,
and d) x
P
?

Solution:
a)

b)

c)

d)

V 1
cm 10
cm 10 10
ln V 026 . 0 ln
6 20
6 17 20
2
~
= =

i
a d
bi
n
N N
q
kT
|
m 12 . 0
10 10 6 . 1
1 10 85 . 8 12 2 2
2 / 1
17 19
14
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

= ~

d
bi s
dep
qN
W
| c
m 12 . 0 = ~
dep N
W x
0 2 . 1 m 10 2 . 1
4
~ = = =

a d N P
N N x x
4.3 Reverse-Biased PN J unction
density dopant lighter N N N
a d

1 1 1 1
~ + =
Does the depletion layer
widen or shrink with
increasing reverse bias?
+
V

N P

qN
barrier potential
qN
V
W
s r bi s
dep

=
+
=
c | c 2 |) | ( 2

(b) reverse-biased

qV
E
c

E
c

E
fn

E
v

q|
bi
+ qV
E
fp

E
v

(a) V = 0

E
c

E
f

E
v

E
f

E
v

q|
bi

E
c

4.4 Capacitance-Voltage Characteristics
Is C
dep
a good thing?
How to minimize junction capacitance?
dep
s
dep
W
A C
c
=
N P

N
d
N
a
Conductor Insulator Conductor

W
dep
Reverse biased PN junction is
a capacitor.

Slide 4-13
4.4 Capacitance-Voltage Characteristics
From this C-V data can N
a
and N
d
be determined?
2 2
2
2
2
) ( 2 1
A qN
V
A
W
C
S
bi
s
dep
dep
c
|
c
+
= =
V
r
1/C
dep
2
Increasing reverse bias
Slope = 2/qNc
s
A
2

|
bi
Capacitance data
EXAMPLE: If the slope of the line in the previous slide is
2x10
23
F
-2
V
-1
, the intercept is 0.84V, and A is 1 m
2
, find the
lighter and heavier doping concentrations N
l
and N
h
.

Solution:

= ln
2
i
l h
bi
n
N N
q
kT
|
3 18
026 . 0
84 . 0
15
20
2
cm 10 8 . 1
10 6
10

=
= = e e
N
n
N
kT
q
l
i
h
bi
|
Is this an accurate way to determine N
l
? N
h
?
3 15
2 8 14 19 23
2
cm 10 6
) cm 10 10 85 . 8 12 10 6 . 1 10 2 /( 2
) /( 2

=
=
= A q slope N
s l
c
4.5 J unction Breakdown
A Zener diode is designed to operate in the breakdown mode.

V
I
V
B
, breakdown
P N

A
R
Forward Current
Small leakage
Current
voltage

3.7 V

R

IC
A
B
C
D
Zener diode
4.5.1 Peak Electric Field
2 / 1
|) | (
2
) 0 (
(

(

+ = =
r bi
s
p
V
qN
|
c
E E
bi
crit s
B
qN
V
|
c
=
2
2
E
N
+
P N
a

Neutral Region
0

x
p

(a)
increasing
reverse bias
x

E

x
p

(b)
increasing reverse bias
E
p
4.5.2 Tunneling Breakdown
Dominant if both sides of
a junction are very heavily
doped.
V/cm 10
6
~ =
crit p
E E

V
I
Breakdown

Empty States Filled States
-
E
v

E
c

p
e G J
/ H
=

Slide 4-18
4.5.3 Avalanche Breakdown
impact ionization: an energetic
electron generating electron and
hole, which can also cause
impact ionization.
qN
V
crit s
B
2
2
E
c
=
Impact ionization + positive
feedbackavalanche breakdown
d a
B
N
1
N
1
N
1
V + =
E
c
E
fn
E
c
E
v
E
fp
original
electron
electron-hole
pair generation
4.6 Forward Bias Carrier I njection

Minority carrier injection

+
V
N P
E
c
E
f
E
v
E
c
E
fp
E
v

V = 0
E
f n

Forward biased

q|
bi
qV
-
+
q|
bi
qV
V=0
I =0
Forward biased
Drift and diffusion cancel out
4.6 Forward Bias
Quasi-equilibrium Boundary Condition
kT E E kT E E
c
kT E E
c
fp fn fp c fn c
e e N e N x n
/ ) ( / ) ( / ) (
P
) (

= =
kT qV
P
kT E E
P
e n e n
fp fn
/
0
/ ) (
0
= =

The minority carrier
densities are raised
by e
qV/kT
Which side gets more
carrier injection?
E
c
E
fp
E
v
E
fn
0
N
0
P
x
E
c

E
fn

E
fp

E
v

x
E
fn

x
N
x
P

4.6 Carrier I njection Under Forward Bias
Quasi-equilibrium Boundary Condition
) 1 ( ) ( ) (
0 0
=
'
kT qV
P P P P
e n n x n x n
) 1 ( ) ( ) (
0 0
=
'
kT qV
N N N N
e p p x p x p
kT V q
a
i
kT V q
P
e
N
n
e n n

2
0
) x
P
(
= =
kT V q
d
i
kT V q
N
e
N
n
e p p

2
0
) (
= =
x
P

EXAMPLE: Carrier I njection
A PN junction has N
a
=10
19
cm
-3
and N
d
=10
16
cm
-3
. The applied
voltage is 0.6 V.

Question: What are the minority carrier concentrations at the
depletion-region edges?

Solution:

Question: What are the excess minority carrier concentrations?

Solution:
-3 11 026 . 0 6 . 0
0
cm 10 10 ) ( = = = e e n x n
kT V q
P P
-3 14 026 . 0 6 . 0 4
0
cm 10 10 ) ( = = = e e p x p
kT V q
N N
-3 11 11
0
cm 10 10 10 ) ( ) ( = = =
'
P P P
n x n x n
-3 14 4 14
0
cm 10 10 10 ) ( ) ( = = =
'
N N N
p x p x p
4.7 Current Continuity Equation
t
p
q
x
x J x x J
p p
'
=
A
A +
) ( ) (
t
p
x A
q
x x J
A
q
x J
A
p p
'
A +
A +
=
) ( ) (
t
p
q
dx
dJ
p
'
=
Ax
p
J
p
(x + Ax)
x
a
r
e
a

A
J
p
(x)
Volume = AAx
4.7 Current Continuity Equation
Minority drift current is negligible;
J
p
= qD
p
dp/dx
L
p
and L
n
are the diffusion lengths
t
p
q
dx
dJ
p
'
=
p
p
p
q
dx
p d
qD
t
'
=
2
2
2 2
2
p
p p
L
p
D
p
dx
p d
'
=
'
=
'
t
p p p
D L t
2 2
2
n
L
n
dx
n d
'
=
'
n n n
D L t
4.8 Forward Biased J unction-- Excess Carriers
2 2
2
p
L
p
dx
p d
'
=
'
0 ) ( =
'
p
) 1 ( ) (
/
0
=
'
kT qV
N N
e p x p
p p
L x L x
Be Ae x p
/ /
) (

+ =
'
( )
N
L x x
kT qV
N
x x e e p x p
p N
> =
'

, ) 1 ( ) (
/
/
0
P N +
x
P
-x
N
0

x
( )
P
L x x kT qV
P
x x e e n x n
n P
< =
'

, ) 1 ( ) (
/ /
0
4.8 Excess Carrier Distributions
0.5
1.0
3L
n
2L
n
L
n
0 L
p
2L
p
3L
p
4L
p
N-side
N
d
= 210
17

cm
-3
p
N
' e
x/L
P-side
n
P
' e
x/L
N
a
= 10
17
cm
-3
n
p
( )
N
L x x
kT qV
N
x x e e p x p
p N
> =
'

, ) 1 ( ) (
/
/
0
EXAMPLE: Carrier Distribution in Forward-biased PN Diode
Sketch n'(x) on the P-side.
3 13 026 . 0 6 . 0
17
20
/
2
0
cm 10
10
10
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) (

= = = =
'
e e
N
n
e n x n
kT qV
a
i
kT qV
P P
N-type
N
d
= 510
17
cm
-3
D
p
=12 cm
2
/s
t
p
= 1 s
P-type
N
a
= 10
17
cm
-3
D
n
=36.4cm
2
/ s
t
n
= 2 s
x
N-side P-side
10
13
cm
-3
2 10
12
n ( = p )
p ( = n )

Slide 4-28
How does L
n
compare with a typical device size?
m 85 10 2 36
6
= = =

n n n
D L t
What is p'(x) on the P- side?
EXAMPLE: Carrier Distribution in Forward-biased PN Diode

Slide 4-29

4.9 PN Diode I -V Characteristics
( )
p N
L x x
kT V q
N
p
p
p pN
e e p
L
D
q
dx
x p d
qD J

=
'
= ) 1 (
) (
0
( )
n P
L x x kT V q
P
n
n
n nP
e e n
L
D
q
dx
x n d
qD J

=
'
= ) 1 (
) (
0
x J
e n
L
D
q p
L
D
q x J x J
kT V q
P
n
n
N
p
p
P nP N pN
all at
) 1 ( ) ( ) ( current Total
0 0
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + =
0

P-side N-side
J
total

J
pN

J
nP

x
0

P-side N-side
J
total

J
pN

J
nP

J
n
=J
total
J
p
J
p
=J
total
J
n
The PN J unction as a Temperature Sensor
What causes the I V curves to shift to lower V at higher T ?
) 1 (
0
=
kT V q
e I I
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
a n
n
d p
p
i
N L
D
N L
D
Aqn I
2
0
4.9.1 Contributions from the Depletion Region
dep
dep i
leakage
W qn
A I I + =
0
Space-Charge Region (SCR) current
kT qV
i
e n p n
2 /
~ ~
) 1 (
: rate n) (generatio ion recombinat Net
2 /
kT qV
dep
i
e
n
t
) 1 ( ) 1 (
2 / /
0
+ =
kT qV
dep
dep i
kT qV
e
W qn
A e I I
Under forward bias, SCR current is an extra
current with a slope 120mV/decade
4.10 Charge Storage
What is the relationship between t
s
(charge-storage time)
and t (carrier lifetime)?
x
N-side P-side
10
13
cm
-3
210
12
n'
p
I Q
s
Q I t =
s
I Q t =

Slide 4-33
4.11 Small-signal Model of the Diode
kT qV kT qV
e I
dV
d
e I
dV
d
dV
dI
R
G
/
0
/
0
) 1 (
1
~ = =
What is G at 300K and I
DC
= 1 mA?

Diffusion Capacitance:
q
kT
/ I G
dV
dI
dV
dQ
C
DC s s s
t t t = = = =
Which is larger, diffusion or depletion capacitance?
C R V
I
q
kT
I e I
kT
q
DC
kT qV
/ ) (
/
0
= =
4.12 Solar Cells
Solar Cells is also known
as photovoltaic cells.
Converts sunlight to
electricity with 10-30%
conversion efficiency.

1 m
2
solar cell generate
about 150 W peak or 25 W
continuous power.

Low cost and high
efficiency are needed for
wide deployment.
Part I I : Application to Optoelectronic Devices
4.12.1 Solar Cell Basics
sc
kT V q
I e I I = ) 1 (
0
V
0.7 V
I
sc Maximum
power-output
Solar Cell
IV
I
Dark IV
0
Eq.(4.9.4)
Eq.(4.12.1)

N
P
-
Short Circuit
light
I
sc
+
(a)
E
c
E
v
Direct-Gap and Indirect-Gap Semiconductors

Electrons have both particle and wave properties.
An electron has energy E and wave vector k.
indirect-gap semiconductor direct-gap semiconductor
4.12.2 Light Absorption

) (
24 . 1

(eV) Energy Photon
m
hc
=
=
x -
e (x) intensity Light
o
(1/cm): absorption
coefficient
1/ : light penetration
depth

Slide 4-37
A thinner layer of direct-gap semiconductor can absorb most
of solar radiation than indirect-gap semiconductor. But Si
4.12.3 Short-Circuit Current and Open-Circuit Voltage

Ax
p
J
p
(x + Ax)
x
a
r
e
a

A
J
p
(x)
Volume = AAx
If light shines on the N-type
semiconductor and generates
holes (and electrons) at the
rate of G s
-1
cm
-3
,
p p
D
G
L
p
dx
p d
'
=
'
2 2
2
If the sample is uniform (no PN junction),
d
2
p/dx
2
=0 p =GL
p
2
/D
p
=Gt
p
Solar Cell Short-Circuit Current, I
sc
p
L x
p
p
p
p p
Ge
L
D
q
dx
x p d
qD J
/
) (

=
'
= t
G
D
G
L p
p
p
p
t = =
'
2
) (
) 1 ( ) (
/
p
L x
p
e G x p

=
'
t
0 ) 0 ( =
'
p
Assume very thin P+ layer and carrier generation in N region only.
G AqL AJ I
p p sc
= = ) 0 (
x
N P
+

I
sc

0
x
P'
L
p

G
p
t
0
G is really not uniform. L
p
needs be larger than the light
penetration depth to collect most of the generated carriers.
Open-Circuit Voltage
G AqL e
L
D
N
n
Aq I
p
kT qV
p
p
d
i
= ) 1 (
/
2
1) e (assuming
/ qV
oc
>>
kT
Total current is I
SC
plus the PV diode (dark) current:
Solve for the open-circuit voltage (V
oc
) by setting I=0
G L e
L
D
N
n
p
kT qV
p
p
d
i
oc
=
/
2
0
) / ln(
2
i d p oc
n GN
q
kT
V t =
How to raise V
oc
?
4.12.4 Output Power
FF V I
oc sc
= er Output Pow
Theoretically, the highest efficiency (~24%) can be obtained with
1.9eV >Eg>1.2eV. Larger Eg lead to too low Isc (low light
absorption); smaller Eg leads to too low Voc.
Tandem solar cells gets 35% efficiency using large and small Eg
materials tailored to the short and long wavelength solar light.
A particular operating point on the
solar cell I-V curve maximizes the
output power (I V).
Si solar cell with 15-20% efficiency

dominates the market now
Light emitting diodes (LEDs)
LEDs are made of compound semiconductors such as InP
and GaN.

Light is emitted when electron and hole undergo radiative
recombination.
E
c

E
v

Radiative
recombination
Non-radiative
recombination
through traps

4.13 Light Emitting Diodes and Solid-State Lighting
Direct and I ndirect Band Gap
Direct band gap
Example: GaAs
Direct recombination is efficient
as k conservation is satisfied.
Indirect band gap
Example: Si
Direct recombination is rare as k
conservation is not satisfied
Trap

4.13.1 LED Materials and Structure
) (
24 . 1
energy photon
24 . 1
m) ( h wavelengt LED
eV E
g
~ =
4.13.1 LED Materials and Structure
) (eV E
g

red
yellow
blue

Wavelength
(m)
Color
Lattice
constant
()
InAs 0.36 3.44

6.05
InN 0.65 1.91
infrared
3.45
InP 1.36 0.92

violet
5.87
GaAs 1.42 0.87 5.66
GaP 2.26 0.55 5.46
AlP 3.39 0.51 5.45
GaN 2.45 0.37 3.19
AlN 6.20 0.20 UV 3.11
Light-emitting diode materials
compound semiconductors

binary semiconductors:
- Ex: GaAs, efficient emitter

ternary semiconductor :
- Ex: GaAs
1-x
P
x
, tunable E
g
(to
vary the color)

quaternary semiconductors:
- Ex: AlInGaP , tunable E
g
and
lattice constant (for growing high
quality epitaxial films on
inexpensive substrates)

E
g
(eV)
Red
Yellow
Green
Blue
Common LEDs
Spectral
range
Material
System
Substrate Example Applications
Infrared InGaAsP InP Optical communication
Infrared
-Red
GaAsP GaAs
Indicator lamps. Remote
control
Red-
Yellow
AlInGaP
GaA or
GaP
Optical communication.
High-brightness traffic
signal lights
Green-
Blue
InGaN
GaN or
sapphire
High brightness signal
lights.
Video billboards
Blue-UV AlInGaN
GaN or
sapphire
Solid-state lighting
Red-
Blue
Organic
semicon-
ductors
glass Displays
AlInGaP
Quantun Well

Slide 4-47
4.13.2 Solid-State Lighting
Incandescent
lamp
Compact
fluorescent
lamp
Tube
fluorescent
lamp
White
LED
Theoretical limit at
peak of eye sensitivity
( =555nm)
Theoretical limit
(white light)
17 60 50-100 90-? 683 ~340
luminosity (lumen, lm): a measure of visible light energy
normalized to the sensitivity of the human eye at
different wavelengths
Luminous efficacy of lamps in lumen/watt
Terms: luminosity measured in lumens. luminous efficacy,
Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED) :
has lower efficacy than nitride or aluminide based compound semiconductor LEDs.
4.14 Diode Lasers
(d) Net Light
Absorption
(e) Net Light
Amplification
Stimulated emission: emitted photon has identical frequency and
directionality as the stimulating photon; light wave is amplified.
(b) Spontaneous
Emission
(c) Stimulated
Emission
(a) Absorption
4.14.1 Light Amplification
Light amplification requires
population inversion: electron
occupation probability is
larger for higher E states than
lower E states.

Slide 4-49
4.14.1 Light Amplification in PN Diode
g fp fn
E E E qV > =
Population inversion
is achieved when
Population inversion, qV > Eg
Equilibrium, V=0
1
2 1
> G R R
R1, R2: reflectivities of the two ends
G : light amplification factor (gain)
for a round-trip travel of the light
through the diode
Light intensity grows until , when the light intensity
is just large enough to stimulate carrier recombinations at the same
rate the carriers are injected by the diode current.
1
2 1
= G R R
4.14.2 Optical Feedback and Laser
light
out
Cleaved
crystal
plane
P
+
N
+
Laser threshold is reached (light
intensity grows by feedback)
when

Slide 4-51
4.14.2 Optical Feedback and Laser Diode
Distributed Bragg
reflector (DBR) reflects
light with multi-layers of
semiconductors.
Vertical-cavity surface-
emitting laser (VCSEL) is
shown on the left.
Quantum-well laser has
smaller threshold current
because fewer carriers
are needed to achieve
population inversion in
the small volume of the
thin small-Eg well.
4.14.3 Laser Applications
Red diode lasers: CD, DVD reader/writer
Blue diode lasers: Blu-ray DVD (higher storage density)
1.55 m infrared diode lasers: Fiber-optic communication

Photodiodes: Reverse biased PN diode. Detects photo-
generated current (similar to Isc of solar cell) for optical
communication, DVD reader, etc.
Avalanche photodiodes: Photodiodes operating near
avalanche breakdown amplifies photocurrent by impact
ionization.
4.15 Photodiodes

Slide 4-53
Two kinds of metal-semiconductor contacts:

Rectifying Schottky diodes: metal on lightly
doped silicon

Low-resistance ohmic contacts: metal on
heavily doped silicon

Part I I I : Metal-Semiconductor J unction
Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 4-54
|
Bn
I ncreases with I ncreasing Metal Work Function

Theoretically,
|
Bn
=
M
_
Si

M
_
Si
: Work Function
of metal
: Electron Affinity of Si

q |
Bn
E
c
E
v
E
f
E
0
q
M
_
Si
= 4.05 eV
Vacuum level,

Slide 4-55
4.16 Schottky Barriers
Energy Band Diagram of Schottky Contact
Schottky barrier height, |
B
,
is a function of the metal
material.

|
B
is the most important
parameter. The sum of q|
Bn

and q|
Bp
is equal to E
g
.

Metal
Depletion
layer
Neutral region
q|
Bn

E
c

E
c

E
f

E
f

E
v

E
v

q|
Bp

N-Si
P-Si
Slide 4-56
Schottky barrier heights for electrons and holes
|
Bn
increases with increasing metal work function

Metal Mg Ti Cr W Mo Pd Au Pt
|
Bn
(V) 0.4 0.5 0.61 0.67 0.68 0.77 0.8 0.9
|
Bp
(V) 0.61 0.5 0.42 0.3
Work
Function 3.7 4.3 4.5 4.6 4.6 5.1 5.1 5.7
m
(V)
|
Bn
+ |
Bp
~ E
g

Slide 4-57

A high density of
energy states in the
bandgap at the metal-
semiconductor interface
pins E
f
to a narrow
range and |
Bn
is
typically 0.4 to 0.9 V

Question: What is the
typical range of |
Bp
?
Fermi Level Pinning

q |
Bn E
c
E
v
E
f
E
0
q
M
_
Si
= 4.05 eV
Vacuum level,
+
Slide 4-58
Schottky Contacts of Metal Silicide on Si
Silicide-Si interfaces are more stable than metal-silicon
interfaces. After metal is deposited on Si, an annealing step is
applied to form a silicide-Si contact. The term metal-silicon
contact includes and almost always means silicide-Si contacts.
Silicide: A silicon and metal compound. It is conductive
similar to a metal.
Silicide ErSi
1.7
HfSi MoSi
2
ZrSi
2
TiSi
2
CoSi
2
WSi
2
NiSi
2
Pd
2
Si PtSi
| Bn
(V) 0.28 0.45 0.55 0.55 0.61 0.65 0.67 0.67 0.75 0.87
| Bp
(V) 0.55 0.49 0.45 0.45 0.43 0.43 0.35 0.23
|
Bn
|
Bp
Slide 4-59
Using C-V Data to Determine |
B

A
W
C
qN
V
W
N
N
kT q
E E q q
dep
s
d
bi s
dep
d
c
Bn
f c Bn bi
c
| c
|
| |
=
+
=
=
=

) ( 2
ln
) (
Question:
How should we plot the CV
data to extract |
bi
?
E
v

E
f

E
c

q|
bi

q|
Bn

E
v

E
c

E
f

q|
Bn

q(|
bi
+ V)
qV
Slide 4-60
Once |
bi
is known, |
B
can
be determined using
2 2
) ( 2 1
A qN
V
C
s d
bi
c
| +
=
d
c
Bn f c Bn bi
N
N
kT q E E q q ln ) ( = = | | |
Using CV Data to Determine |
B

V
1 /C
2
|
bi
E
v

E
f

E
c

q|
bi

q|
Bn

Slide 4-61
4.17 Thermionic Emission Theory
2 / /
0
/ / 2
3
2
/ ) (
2 / 3
2
/ ) (
A/cm 100 where ,
4
2
1
/ 2 / 3
2
2
kT q
o
kT qV
kT qV kT q
n
thx M S
n thx n th
kT V q
n
kT V q
c
B
B
B B
e J e J
e e T
h
k qm
qnv J
m kT v m kT v
e
h
kT m
e N n
|
|
| |
t
t
t

~ =
= =
= =
(
= =
E
fn
-
q( |
B
V)
q |
B
qV
Metal
N-type
Silicon
V
E
fm
E
v
E
c
x
v
thx

Slide 4-62
4.18 Schottky Diodes
V
I
Reverse bias Forward bias
V = 0
Forward
biased
Reverse
biased
Slide 4-63
) 1 (
) K A/(cm 100
4
/
0 0
/
0
2 2
3
2
/ 2
0
= = + =
~ =
=

kT qV kT qV
S M M S
n
kT q
e I I e I I I I
h
k qm
K
e AKT I
B
t
|
4.18 Schottky Diodes

Slide 4-64
4.19 Applications of Schottly Diodes
I
0
of a Schottky diode is 10
3
to 10
8
times larger than a PN
junction diode, depending on |
B
. A larger I
0
means a smaller
forward drop V.
A Schottky diode is the preferred rectifier in low voltage,
high current applications.
I
V
PN junction
Schottky
|
B
I
V
PN junction
Schottky diode

|
B
diode
kT q
kT qV
B
e AKT I
e I I
/ 2
0
/
0
) 1 (
|
=
=
Slide 4-65
Switching Power Supply
AC
DC AC AC
DC
utility
power
110V/220V
PN Junction
rectifier

Hi-voltage
MOSFET
inverter
100kHz
Hi-voltage

Transformer
Schottky
rectifier
Lo-voltage
50A
1V
feedback to modulate the pulse width to keep V
out
= 1V
Slide 4-66
There is no minority carrier injection at the Schottky
junction. Therefore, Schottky diodes can operate at higher
frequencies than PN junction diodes.
4.19 Applications of Schottky diodes
Question: What sets the lower limit in a Schottky diodes
forward drop?

Synchronous Rectifier: For an even lower forward drop,
replace the diode with a wide-W MOSFET which is not
bound by the tradeoff between diode V and leakage current.
Slide 4-67
4.20 Quantum Mechanical Tunneling
) ( ) (
8
2 exp
2
2
E V
h
m
T P
H
~
t
Tunneling probability:
Slide 4-68
4.21 Ohmic Contacts

Slide 4-69
d Bn
N V H
n d thx d M S
n s
d Bn s dep
e m kT qN P v qN J
q m
h
H
qN W T
/ ) (
2 /
2
1
/
4
2 / 2 /

= ~
=
= ~
|
t
c
t
| c
4.21 Ohmic Contacts
d
Bn s
dep
qN
W
| c 2
=
d Bn
N H
e P
|
~
Tunneling
probability:
- -

x
Silicide N
+
Si
E
v

E
c
, E
f

|
Bn

- -

x
V
E
fm

E
v

E
c
, E
f

|
Bn
V
Slide 4-70
2
/
/
1
cm
2
=
|
.
|
\
|

d Bn
d Bn
N H
d thx
N H
M S
c
e
N H qv
e
dV
dJ
R
|
|
4.21 Ohmic Contacts
Slide 4-71
4.22 Chapter Summary
The potential barrier
increases by 1 V if a 1 V
reverse bias is applied
junction capacitance
depletion width
2
ln
i
a d
bi
n
N N
q
kT
= |
qN
barrier potential
W
s
dep

=
c 2
dep
s
dep
W
A C
c
=
Part I : PN J unction
Slide 4-72
Under forward bias, minority carriers are injected
across the jucntion.

The quasi-equilibrium boundary condition of
minority carrier densities is:

Most of the minority carriers are injected into the
more lightly doped side.
kT V q
P p
e n x n
0
) ( =
kT V q
N N
e p x p
0
) ( =
Steady-state
continuity equation:

Minority carriers
diffuse outward e
|x|/L
p

and e
|x|/L
n

L
p
and L
n
are the
diffusion lengths
2 2
2
p
p p
L
p
D
p
dx
p d
'
=
'
=
'
t
p p p
D L t
) 1 (
0
=
kT V q
e I I
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
a n
n
d p
p
i
N L
D
N L
D
Aqn I
2
0
q
kT
/ I G
DC
=
Charge storage:

Diffusion capacitance:

Diode conductance:

G C
s
t =
s
I Q t =
Part I I : Optoelectronic Applications
~100um Si or <1um directgap semiconductor can absorb most of solar
photons with energy larger than E
g
.
Carriers generated within diffusion length from the junction can be
collected and contribute to the Short Circuit Current I
sc
.
Theoretically, the highest efficiency (~24%) can be obtained with 1.9eV
>E
g
>1.2eV. Larger E
g
lead to too low I
sc
(low light absorption); smaller E
g

leads to too low Open Circuit VoltageVoc.
FF V I
oc sc
= power cell Solar
Si cells with ~15% efficiency dominate the market. >2x cost reduction
(including package and installation) is required to achieve cost parity with
base-load non-renewable electricity.
Electron-hole recombination in direct-gap semiconductors such as GaAs
produce light.
Beyond displays, communication, and traffic lights, a new application is
space lighting with luminous efficacy >5x higher than incandescent lamps.
White light can be obtained with UV LED and phosphors. Cost still an issue.
LED and Solid-State Lighting
Tenary semiconductors such as GaAsP provide tunable E
g
and LED color.
Quatenary semiconductors such as AlInGaP provide tunable E
g
and lattice
constants for high quality epitaxial growth on inexpensive substrates.
Organic semiconductor is an important low-cost LED material class.
Light is amplified under the condition of population inversion states at
higher E have higher probability of occupation than states at lower E.
When the round-trip gain (including loss at reflector) exceeds unity, laser
threshold is reached.
Laser Diodes
Population inversion occurs when diode forward bias qV > E
g
.
Optical feedback is provided with cleaved surfaces or distributed Bragg
reflectors.
Quantum-well structures significantly reduce the threshold currents.
Purity of laser light frequency enables long-distance fiber-optic
communication. Purity of light direction allows focusing to tiny spots and
enables DVD writer/reader and other application.
Part I I I : Metal-Semiconductor J unction
Schottky diodes have large reverse saturation current, determined by the
Schottky barrier height |
B
, and therefore lower forward voltage at a given
current density.
kT q
B
e AKT I
/ 2
0
|
=
2
) /
4
(
cm

d n s B
qN m
h
c
e R
c |
t
Ohmic contacts relies on tunneling. Low resistance contact requires
low |
B
and higher doping concentration.
Slide 4-79
|
Bn
I ncreases with I ncreasing Metal Work Function

q |
Bn
E
c
E
v
E
f
E
0
q
M
_
Si
= 4.05 eV
Vacuum level,
Ideally,
|
Bn
=
M
_
Si

PN and Metal-Semiconductor Junctions: 4.1 Building Blocks of The PN Junction Theory

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Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C.

Hu) Slide 4-1

Si solar cell with 15-20% efficiency

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