Joining Processes

WELDING
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WELDING
Definition: Material joining process. Two parts
connected at their contacting surfaces by suitable
heat and pressure.
Many welding processes are accomplished
by heat alone, some others by heat and pressure,
and some with pressure only.
In some welding operations a filler material
is used.
Welding operation usually applied to metals
but also used for plastics.

Parts produced by any of the manufacturing processes can be
made into larger, more complex bodies via Joining processes
Creating a metallurgical bond by adhesion and diffusion
Joining by fusion with the use of various heat sources
Brazing or soldering with a lower-melting metal
Mechanical fastening

Joining Processes
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Fusion Welding Processes
Sources of Energy for Fusion Welding
Chemical reactions
Burning gases
GAS WELDING
Heat from electricity
Arc
ARC WELDING SYSTEMS
Resistance welding
Light
LASER
Three Specific Types of Welding Modules
In this Welding, Cutting, and Brazing
module, three specific types of welding are
covered. These are listed below:
Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting
Arc welding and cutting
Resistance welding
Resistance Welding
Definition:
This is a group of fusion welding processes
that use heat and pressure to make the
coalescence.
The heat comes from electrical resistance
to current flow at the site of the weld.
The processes include:
Spot Welding
Projection Welding
Seam Welding
Note: FP&M only does spot welding.
Resistance Welding

Spot Welding
A process typically used in high-volume,
rapid welding applications.
The pieces to be joined are clamped
between two electrodes under force,
and an electrical current is sent
through them.
Welding/Cutting Hazards
Potential Hazards
Fires may start by hot materials igniting nearby
combustibles.
Burns to the operator may occur if unprotected
skin comes into contact with the extremely hot
work.
Magnetic fields could easily
destroy/disrupt electronic
components, stored data if not
careful.
Welding/Cutting Hazards
Potential Hazards Cont.:
Metal fumes from vaporizing of the work with the
extremely hot arcs may be inhaled into the workers lungs.
Certain metals and metal oxide fumes, including zinc,
cadmium and beryllium, produce serious illnesses when
inhaled.
Fluxes used with welding to create inert atmospheres at
the point of the weld also present inhalation hazards.
All welding and cutting must have adequate ventilation to
protect the person doing the welding and those working
around the welding area.
Weld Joint Structure
Characteristics of a typical fusion-weld zone in oxyfuel-gas and arc welding.

Microhardness (HV) profile across a
weld bead.
A fusion joint is far from homogenous. Degree of
inhomogeity increases from pure metals to
multiphase alloys.
Typical weld zone in arc and gas welds
The base material adjacent to the melt boundary is exposed to high
temperatures, and the properties and structure are changed within the heat-
affected zone.

Cold worked base material will show recrystallization in HAZ, with coarse grain
sizes.

In either case, a coarse-grained structure of lower strength exits at the melt
boundary.

Melt
Weldability and Weld Quality
- Welding Defects-

1. Fusion welding defects due wrong heat input, insufficient
rate of weld metal deposition, and cooling.
2. Lack of bonding or gas porosity due to surface
contaminants, including oxides, oils, etc.
3. Undesirable reactions with surface contaminants
4. Solidification cracks in the weld.
5. Solidification shrinkage coupled with solid shrinkage
imposes internal tensile stresses on the structure, may
lead to distortion.
6. Gases released or formed during welding (eg CO) can
lead to porosity which weakens the joint and acts as a
stress raiser.
Welding Defects
1. Preheating the weld zone reduces energy input, cooling
rates in the weld and HAZ, reduces differential shrinkage,
residual stresses, and distortion.
2. Postwelding heat treatment of the entire welded structure
a. Stress-relief anneal reduces residual stresses to
acceptable level.
b. Normalizing a steel wipes out most undesirable effects of
welding.
c. Full heat treatment (quenching and tempering of steels)
3. Peening (hammering or rolling) of weld bead improves the
strength of welds.
Metal Treatment
Oxyacetylene Gas Welding
Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and
cutting operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or
reducing, flame. The gas mixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen
and acetylene. (d) The principle of the oxyfuel-gas welding operation.
Oxyacetylene Torch
The acetylene valve is opened first; the
gas is lit with a spark lighter or a pilot
light; then the oxygen valve is opened
and the flame adjusted.
Basic equipment used in oxyfuel-gas welding. To ensure correct connections, all
threads on acetylene fittings are left-handed, whereas those for oxygen are right-
handed. Oxygen regulators are usually painted green, and acetylene regulators red.
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Oxyfuel gas welding
Oxygen-fuel gas welding & Cutting
The elements of Oxygen-fuel gas welding
and cutting:
General Requirements
Cylinders
Service Pipe Systems
Pipe System Protection
Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting
General Requirements
Focuses on using Acetylene Safely
Flammable
Unstable
Cannot be adjusted above 15 psi
Safe Work Practices
Blow out cylinder valve
Turn on cylinder valve first and
then adjust the regulator pressure screw.
Never stand in front or behind
a regulator when opening the cylinder valve
Open cylinder valve slowly
The pressure adjusting screw:
Turning clockwise allows the gas
allows to flow.
Turning counterclockwise reduces
or stop the gas flow.
Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting
General Requirements Cont.:
Safe Work Practices
Purge oxygen and acetylene passages
Light the acetylene
Never use oil or grease
Do not use oxygen as a substitute for air
Keep your work area clean

Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting
Cylinders
Cylinder approval and marking
marked for the purpose of identifying the gas content,
with either the chemical or trade name of the gas
Storage of cylinders
Storage area must be well ventilated
Cylinders must be at least 20 feet from combustibles
Valves must be closed
Valve protection must be in place
Inside storage must be limited to 2,000 cubic feet.
Cylinders must be stored in upright position
Oxygen must be at least 20 feet from fuel gas
or 5 feet with a 1/2 hour fire barrier
Separate oxygen from fuel gas
Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting
Cylinders Cont.:
Operating Procedures
Operation must emphasize the absence of
oily or greasy substances. Follow these rules
of operation:
Cylinders, cylinder valves, couplings, regulators,
hose, and apparatus shall be kept free from oily or
greasy substances.
Oxygen cylinders or apparatus shall not be
handled with oily hands or gloves.
A jet of oxygen must never be permitted to strike
an oily surface, greasy clothes, or enter a fuel oil
or other storage tank.
Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting
Service Pipe Systems
There are special requirements for service pipe
systems when using oxygen or acetylene.
Oxygen
Acetylene or Acetylene Compounds

Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting
Pipe System Protection
The entire service pipe system must be protected
against build-up of excessive pressure and leaks.
This protection is accomplished with:
Protective equipment
Regulators
Proper hose and hose connections.

Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting
Pipe System Protection Cont.:
Protective equipment is divided into the two
categories listed here:
Pressure Relief Devices
The pressure relief device should discharge upwards to a
safe location.
Pressure relief valves are required in fuel-gas piping systems
to prevent excessive pressure build up within the system.
Oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting
Pipe System Protection Cont.:
Approved protective equipment shall be
installed in fuel-gas piping to prevent:
Backflow of oxygen into the fuel-gas supply
system
Passage of a flash back into the fuel-gas supply
system
Excessive back pressure of oxygen in the fuel-
gas supply system.
Arc Welding & Cutting
Application
Applies to a large and varied group of processes
that use an electric arc as the source of heat to
melt and join metals.
Installation
Arc welding requires proper installation of
equipment.
A critical part of installation is ensuring that
proper grounding is completed.
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Weld joint
There are 5 basic joint types in welding
Butt joint: Two materials are in the same
plane, joined from the edges.
Corner joint:The corners of two materials
form a right angle and joined.
Lap joint: Two parts overlaps.
Tee joint: One part is perpendicular to the
other, making a T shape.
Edge joint: Edges of the two materials
joined.

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Weld Joints
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Types of weld
1. Fillet weld: Used in T joints,corner joints, lap joints.
2. Groove weld:Used in butt joints.
3. Plug weld: Used in lap joints.
4. Slot weld: Used in lap joints.
5. Spot weld: Used in lap joints.
6. Seam weld: Used in lap joints.
7. Flange weld:Used in edge joints.
8. Surfacing weld:Not a joining process, it is used to
increase the thickness of the plate, or provide a
protective coating on the surface.

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Fillet Weld
Groove weld
Slot and Plug Weld

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Arc Welding
Arc Welding and Cutting
Definition:
A fusion process wherein the coalescence of the
metals is achieved from the heat of an electric arc
formed between an electrode and the work.
Application
Installation
Operation & Maintenance
t
Electric Arc Welding
- Classification -

The Electrode
Consumable: melts and serves as a filling material
Non-consumable: does not melt, parent metal is used, or a
separate filler rod
Coated or Uncoated

Coating
Provides a gaseous shield to prevent oxidation
Lowers the voltage needed to establish the arc
May provide slag-blanket to protect the joint
Add alloying elements to enhance the properties of the joint.
Consumable Electrode Arc Welding Processes
Shielded metal arc welding
Submerged arc welding
Gas metal arc welding


Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc welding process.
About 50% of all large-scale industrial welding operations use this
process.
Consumable Electrode Arc Welding
Shielded-Metal Arc Welding
Heat is produced from electric
arc between workpiece and
electrode material for melting
the workpiece material.
AC and DC are used
An Inert gas shields both
electrodes
Most heat energy is due to
electron flow to metal
Direct Current Electrode Negative
(DCEN): Deeper weld.
Direct Current Electrode Positive
(DCEP): Shallower and Wider
Heat input
v
EI
H
H- heat input, E, Voltage, I, Current, and v the
velocity of the arc travels along the weld line
Electric Arc Welding
Consumable-Electrode Welding:
Gas Metal-Arc Welding (GMAW) - MIG
Consumable gas metal-arc welding (MIG)
Consumable electrode is metal which melts
to become part of the weld seam.
Weld zone is protected by a gas or a flux
No slag is formed
Several layers could be build with little or
no intermediate cleaning
It is suitable for most metals
Wire electrode can be supplied in long,
coiled lengths which allow uninterrupted
welds in any welding position.
(a) Schematic illustration of the gas metal-arc welding process,
formerly known as MIG (for metal inert gas) welding. (b) Basic
equipment used in gas metal-arc welding operations.
Consumable Electrode Arc Welding Gas
- Gas Metal-arc Welding Process-
Non-Consumable Electrode Arc Welding
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding ( TIG)
Plasma arc welding
Atomic hydrogen welding
Non-Consumable-Electrode Welding:
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding (GTAW)
Nonconsumable gas tungsten Inert
gas welding (TIG)
Weld zone is protected by inert gas
DC with straight polarity is used
with steel, cast iron, and stainless
AC with Al, Mg alloys where ac
helps in stripping the oxide
Both hand and automatic
operations are possible
The process demands considerable
skill but produces very high-quality
welds on almost any material
No weld spatter or slag formation

Electron Beam welding (EBW)
Heat is produced by high velocity electron
gun in a narrow beam
No filler material
High rate of heating results in greater depth
and heat-affected zone is very small
Suitable for welding refractory materials like:
molybdenum and zirconium
Requires a vacuum (limitation)
x-ray will be generated around the welding
gun which may be cancerous
Other Welding Processes
High Energy Beam Welding
High Energy Beam Welding
LASER Beam welding (LBW)
Uses a focused high power monochromatic light
beam as a source of heat to the metal
Beam can be directed to the welding spot with a
lens
Depth of welding similar to electron beam
welding
Vacuum is not necessary (advantage)
Workpiece usually needs protection by a gas
Process is suitable for automation
Welding speeds can be upto 7 m/min
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Laser beam welding
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Thermit Welding
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Explosion Welding
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Resistance welding
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Forge welding
Soldering
Circuit Board
Resistor
Solder Pads
Side View
Top View
PCB printed circuit boards
Soldering
Iron
Move soldering iron until tip is
touching wire & solder pad
Move solder to touch edge of tip.
Solder
Hold until solder melts
on tip by wire
Solder
Move solder back to touch wire only
Solder
Move solder in to form a
small pocket
Solder
Move soldering iron tip up. This
will drag solder up with it.
Solder
Look for
shinny fillets
Brazing
Definition:
A process which a filler metal is placed at or between the
faying surfaces, the temperature is raised high enough to
melt the filler metal but not the base metal.
The molten metal fills the spaces by capillary attraction.
Torch Brazing
Oxy-fuel torch with a carburizing flame
First heat the joint then add the filler metal
Safe Work Practices
Electric & Gas Welding
Safety Check:
Ensure electrical cord, electrode holder
and cables are free from defects
No cable splices within 10 feet of electrode holder.
Ensure welding unit is properly grounded.
This helps to avoid over heating.
All defective equipment shall be repaired
or replaced before using.
Safe Work Practices
Electric & Gas Welding Cont.:
Safety Check:
Remove all jewelry rings, watches, bracelets,
etc
Ensure PPE e.g.. welding hood, gloves, rubber
boots or safety shoes, apron are available and in
good condition.
Ensure fire extinguisher is charged and available.
Ensure adequate ventilation and lighting is in place.
Set Voltage Regulator to Manufactures
specifications.
Avoid electrical shock DONT wrap cables around
any body part.
Ensure fittings are tight.
Safe Work Practices
Electric & Gas Welding Cont.:
Safety Check:
Inspect hoses for cuts and frayed areas.
Set gauges to desired PSI.
Ensure that sufficient PPE is made
available.
Locate welding screens to protect
employees DONT block your exit.
Ensure that adequate ventilation and
lighting are in place.
Fire Protection & Prevention Cont.:
Welding areas should meet the following
requirements:
Floors swept & cleared of combustibles 35 ft. radius
of work area.
Flammable and combustible liquids kept 35 ft. radius
of work area.
At least one fire extinguisher on site
Protective dividers to contain sparks and slag
Welding curtains
Non-combustible walls
Fire resistant tarps & blankets
UW-Eau Claire
Facilities Planning & Management
Proper Ventilation for Welding
Ventilation
Proper ventilation can be obtained either naturally or
mechanically.
Natural Ventilation is considered sufficient for welding and brazing
operations if the present work area meets these requirements:
Space of more than 10,000 square feet is provided per welder
A ceiling height of more than 16 feet.
Mechanical ventilation options generally fall into two basic
categories.
Low vacuum system which takes large volumes of air at low velocities.
High vacuum system that are captured and extracted fumes as near to
the work as possible.
Fire Protection & Prevention
Fire hazards must be removed, or
Guards installed, or
Welding/cutting must NOT take place
Hot work permit should be used outside
designated areas to ensure that all fire
hazards are controlled
Use of fire watch
1/2 hour after operation ceases
Proper Ventilation for Welding
Ensure protection from fumes
and gases by one or a
combination of the following:
Good general ventilation.
Use of a booth.
Local exhaust ventilation
on the hand piece.
Air supply to the helmet.
Welding Operators Protection
Welding involves specialized personal
protection that must be worn every time you
perform welding operations. The following is a
list of basic PPE:
Fire-resistant gloves
Aprons
Safety shoes
Helmet
Ultraviolet radiation filter plate (arc welding)
Goggles with filter lenses
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Welding, Cutting and Brazing
Summary
Major hazards include:
Fire
Burns
Shock
Toxic Exposure
Follow proper procedures to prevent fires
Use appropriate engineering controls
Wear appropriate PPE
Any Questions
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