CSE-342

B.Eng. (Electrical Engineering)

Muniba Q. Zaman
Communication System II
Lecture 4
Transmission Techniques
Multiplexing
n Lines share bandwidth of one link
Multiplexer combines n inputs into single stream
(many to one)
De multiplexer separates them back in to
individual components (one to many)
Channel carries stream
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FDM
Signal generated by each device modulate
different carrier frequencies
Modulated signals are then combined into one
composite signal
Channels are separated by unused bandwidth
called guard bands
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FDM (MUX)
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FDM (De - MUX)
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FDM
Assume that a voice channel occupies a
bandwidth of 4 KHz. We need to combine
three voice channels into a link with a
bandwidth of 12 KHz, from 20 to 32 KHz.
Show the configuration using the frequency
domain without the use of guard bands.
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FDM
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1.116 to 3.396 MHz
FDM
60 to 108 KHz
420 to 612 KHz
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TDM
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TDM (Synchronous)
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TDM (Interleaving)
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PCM
The elementary TDM system uses Pulse Coded
Modulation
Each analog sample is applied to an analog-to-digital
(A/D) converter
And produces a group of pulses that represents its
voltage in a binary code
At receiver end, a digital-to-analog (D/A) converter
performs the inverse process

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PCM
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Non Uniform Quantization
Quantization steps can be uniform or non
uniform
Uniform quantization will work well with large
amplitude signal
Small amplitude signal will only range over
few steps and result into more quantization
error
Solution is to use small steps for small input
signal and large steps for large input signals
i.e. companding
Two standard laws for non uniform
quantization are A Law and mu Law
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PCM Primary Multiplex group
Telephone channels are combined using
TDM to form 30 channel or 24 channels
called primary multiplex channels
Building block for making higher mux blocks
i.e. PDH or SDH
Length of frame is 125 micro sec
One speech sample from each channel &
additional digits for signalling /
synchronization
Two widely used standards are:-
30 channel E-1 system in Europe
24 channel T-1 system in USA/Japan

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E -1 (30 Channels)
We have total of 32 time slots, each of 8 digits
Time slot # 0 is used for synchronization/frame
alignment
Block alignment signal is used
Time slot # 16 is used to carry signalling information
Total bit rate would be 8000 x 8 x 32 = 2.048 Mbit/s
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T -1 (24 Channels)
We have total of 24 channels
First bit is used for frame alignment
Distributed alignment signal is used
24 (eight bit) Channels are used to carry speech
information
Total bit rate would be 8000 x (8 x 24 +1) = 1.544
Mbit/s


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T 1 (24 Channels)
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PDH
(Plesiochronous digital hierarchy)
At each level in the hierarchy several bit streams, known
as tributaries, are combined by a multiplexer
I/p to a digital multiplexer will not be exactly synchronous
I/p commonly originate from different crystal oscillators
and can vary within the clock tolerance
They are said to be plesiochronous
Plesio- means almost but truth is that each PDH island
has its own clock
First digital multiplexing network
Based on 64kbps PCM encoded speech
Transmission lines with 24 or 32 time slots
ITU-T recommendation G.702/703


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PDH
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PDH Frame
Bit interleaving is used which does not allow
Add/Drop facility
Overhead bits are used for two purposes :-
Frame alignment (E-1/Block,T-1/Distributed)
Justification (If I/P rate is slow then justification bits added)


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SDH
(Synchronous digital hierarchy)
Motivations
Digital networks
high degree of flexibility; various bit rates can be combined in
one trunk circuit
truly worldwide standard
ITU introduced SDH multiplexing hierarchy
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) is American
version of the ITU (SDH)
Digit rate of SDH is 155.52 Mbps and multiples of this
factors of 4n, e.g. 622.08 Mbps & 2488.32 Mbps
SDH composite bit rates are chosen to be identical to
three of the eight lower SONET bit rates
These bit rates have become worldwide the most widely
used ones
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SONET can take payload of north American PDH
hierarchy (1.5/6/45 Mbps + 2 Mbps) with in 51.84Mbps
SDH std defined 1.5/2/6/34/45/140 Mbps with in 155.52
Mbps
Primarily for Fiber Optics but now it supports radio also
SDH
(Synchronous digital hierarchy)
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SONET
(Synchronous Optical NW)
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SDH
(Synchronous digital hierarchy)
Basic SDH signal, called the synchronous transport module at level1
(STM-1) consist of 9 equal length segments of 270 bytes
It is depicted as 9 rows containing 270 columns where each column
size is one byte
First nine bytes of each segment (SOH, section overhead) are used
for overhead like framing , error monitoring & data etc
Rest 261 columns carry payload
STM-1consists of 2430 bytes
Rest of the levels are multiple of 4
Data Rate?
Each column contains 9 bytes (rows) , with each byte having 64
kbps capacity
Three columns (27 bytes) can hold 1.5 Mbps PCM signal with 24 time
slots and some overhead
Four columns (36 bytes) can hold 2 Mbps PCM signal with 32 time slots
STM -1 can hold 6/45 American or 8/34/140 rates European

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SDH
(Synchronous digital hierarchy)



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SDH
(Multiplexing Scheme)
Bytes from tributaries are assembled into container and
path overhead is added to make virtual container
VC travels through NW as one package until it is de-
multiplexed
A pointer may be added with VC to give its starting point
this pointer + VC are called TU (Tributary Unit)
STM-1 can contain # of TU s
TU s or VC s are then placed inside AU (Administrative
Units)
STM-1 data are simply byte interleaved with other STM-
1 data streams to make up a higher transmission data
rate
The de-multiplexer receives all STM-1 frames
independently
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Overall Loudness Rating (OLR)
Loss accumulated from speakers mouth and listeners ear
Because of 4 wire conversion there is a need to introduce some
loss to avoid singing if # of 4 wire conversions increase then it
can effect OLR therefore maximum allowable loss is given by
formula L = 4 + 0.5 n dB where n is # of 4 wires in tandem
OLR = SLR + CLR + RLR
SLR Send Loudness Rating
CLR Circuit Loudness Rating
RLR Receive Loudness Rating
Mouth to
Interface
Loss
Interface to
Interface
Loss
Interface
to Ear
Loss
OLR Good/Excellent Poor/Bad
5-15dB 90% 1%
20dB 80% 4%
25dB 65% 10%
30dB 45% 20%
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Overall Loudness Rating (OLR)
Transmission loss engineering
To prepare transmission loss plan which should take
care of following :-
Control singing
Keep echo levels with in limits tolerable to the subscriber
Provide an acceptable OLR
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Digital Transmission
Digital transmission links impairment :-
Bit error rate (percentage of bits with errors relative to total
number of transmitted bits)
Slip (loss of consecutive digits due to failure of sync)
Jitter (short-term variations of digital signal from their ideal
positions in time)
Wander (long-term variations of digital signal from their ideal
positions in time )
Errored second (ES) An errored second is any second in
which one or more bits are in error
Severely errored second (SES) A severely errored second
has an error rate of 10
-3
or higher
Degraded minutes A degraded minute (DM) occurs when
there is a 10
-6
or worse bit error rate during 60 seconds

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Digital Transmission Performance
Parameters
Degraded minutes - should be < 10%
Severely erroded seconds should be < 0.2%
Erroded seconds (seconds with at least one error)
should be < 8%

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Transmission Systems
Customer Lines
POTS, for Plain Old Telephone Service (Smallest wire guage to provide
minimum resistance)
Multi-party line offered
ISDN
There are two basic types of ISDN service: Basic Rate Interface consists of two
64 kb/s B channels and one 16 kb/s D channel for a total of 144 kb/s. This basic
service is intended to meet the needs of most individual users
PrimaryRI is intended for users with greater capacity requirements. Typically the
channel structure is 23 B channels plus one 64 kb/s D channel for a total of 1536
kb/s. In Europe, PRI consists of 30 B channels plus one 64 kb/s D channel for a
total of 1984 kb/s
Digital subscriber line
1.5M- to 9M-bps downstream (to the user) transmission, and 16K- to 800K-bps
upstream transmission
WLL (Wireless Local Loop)

Junction Circuits
Trunk Circuits
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Transmission Systems
Junction Circuits
Cables with large no of conductors
FDM carrier system introduced
PCM primary multiplexer systems used on routes requiring large
number of circuits
Trunk Circuit
Latest trend is to use digital communication on fiber optics
Satellite communication systems for long haul communication
Submarine cables an alternative
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Type Distance Bandwidth Voice Channels
Copper 2.5 km 1.5 Mb/s 24
Fiber 200 KM 2.5+ Gb/s 32,000 +
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