Chapter 12

1
Renaissance is French word meaning
rebirth
Late 14
th
and early 15
th
centuries seen as both a
continuation of Middle Ages and as beginning
new era
Historians have debated for many decades
Most historians see a clear distinction between
the two ages
One of our tasksto identify what they were

2
Rebirth
3
Italians living 1350 to 1550 believed they were
living rebirth of the Greco-roman civilizations
The 1000 years preceding was termed the
Dark or Middle Ages due to lack of
classical culture
Swiss historian/art critic Jacob Burckhardt
created the modern concept in his book The
Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy
4
Burckhardt called the Italians the first born
among the sons of modern Europe
Birth place of the modern world
He exaggerated the eras level of secularism and
individualism
There was still a strong commitment to religion
He established framework for modern
interpretations of the period
Identified Renaissance as a distinct period
5
Renaissance Italy was largely an urban
society
Commercial success and political advancements
Northern Italy made up of independent cities
City-states became centers for Italian political,
economic, and social life
New wealth and independence fostered ideas of
enjoyment of worldly things
6
Recovery from the Black Death, political
disorder, and economic recession
Rediscovery of Greco-Roman culture along the
Mediterranean
Attempts to reconcile pagan philosophy with
Christian thought and new ways of looking at
human beings
A high regard for human dignity and worth
realization of individual potential
Concept of ideal person, well rounded, capable
of many diverse talents

7
General features of Italian renaissance limited
to upper classessmall percentage
Achievements were products of elite, not
mass movement
Movement did have indirect impact on the
masses
In the cities
Artistic impact
8
Trade and Manufacturing Increases fostering economic recovery
9
By the 14
th
century, Italian merchants were
successfully trading with ports along the
Mediterranean and up to England and the
Netherlands
Hard hit by the plague, Italians lost their
trade preeminence as the confronted the
Hanseatic League
10
North German coastal towns formed military/
commercial association called Hanseatic league
Established settlements in Denmark, Norway, and
Sweden
Developed 200-year monopoly on many products
The city of Bruges in Flanders was European
economic crossroads
Silt-ridden Bruges caused Hanseatic trade to decline
Italians trade recovered dramatically in the 15
th

centurycity-states did well until the 16
th
century



11
While the depression effected the woolen
industry, 15
th
century Italian cities developed
luxury items
New machinery, techniques, and technology
fostered other industries--
Printing
Mining
Metallurgy
Mining produced copper, iron and silver
Metallurgy skills produced firearms
12
Florence regained banking prominence through
Medici family
Medici family expanded from cloth into commerce,
real estate, and banking
In 15the century, the House of Medici became the
greatest bank in Europe
Primary bank for the papacy, fostering great influence
in papal court
Bad loans and loans not collected led to collapse
of bankFrench expelled bank in 1494
13
Renaissance social structure inherited from
Middle Ages: Three Estates
First Estate: The Clergy
People should be guided by spiritual ends
Second Estate: The Nobility
Privileges based on nobles provided security and justice
Third Estate
Peasants and inhabitants of towns and villages

14
A restructure of the nobility was underway by
the 1500s
Old and new nobility still dominated society
Consisted of 2 to 3 percent of population
Military officers, political posts, pursued education
Ideals became expected of nobility
Baldassare Castlione wrote The Book of the
Courtier
Described the three basic aspects of the courtier

15
Three attributes of the perfect courtier
Fundamental native endowments: character,
talents, noble birth, etc
Cultivate achievements: bearing arms, knowledge
of the arts, play an instrument, etc.
Follow standards of conduct: while modest, show
talents with grace
Primary duty of the courtierto serve his
prince in an effective and honest way
16
Peasants and townspeople made up 85 to 90
percent of European populationthe
exceptions: Flanders and northern Italy
Two economic trends of significance
Decline of the manorial system
Continuing elimination of serfdom


17
Decline of the manorial system
Begun 12
th
century with introduction of money
Money could buy freedom and pay rents
Money eliminated need to be paid in kind or labor
Decline of serfdom
Black Death also caused contraction of peasant
numbers
Lords found it better to deal with peasants by
granting freedom or accepting rents
18
The remainder of the Third Estate centered
around the bourgeoisie
Merchants and artisans
Patricians: on the top, trade, industry, banking
Burghers: shopkeeper, artisans, guild masters, etc
Propertyless workers
Lived in squalid conditions
30-40 % of city workers
19
For the most part, agricultural slavery in
Europe was replaced by serfdom and had
disappeared by the 11
th
century
Slavery reappeared in Spain through
Christians and Muslims capturing prisoners
during the Reconquista
Slavery was reintroduced in 14
th
century
resulting from Black Death
In 1363, Florence authorized unlimited
importation of foreign slaves
20
Italian slaves used as skilled workers and
often held positions in the family household
Italian merchants found a lucrative market in
transporting slaves
Between 1414 and 1423, ten thousand slaves were
sold on the Venetian market
By the end of the 15
th
century, slavery had
declined significantly: humanitarian reasons,
expense, and some found them dangerous
21
The family played an important role
Household of immediate family
Extended household of grandparents, unmarried
sisters, slaves, etc.
Old family names (e.g. Medici) conferred high
status
A crime committed by one family member fell to
the entire familybloody revenge falls to many
Importance explains the vendetta of the Italian
Renaissance

22
Prearranged marriages fostered business and
family ties
The future wifes dowry was important factor
Dowry size could indicate a societal move upward
marrying above her status if she had money
Marrying at lower status for bride produced smaller
dowry; the family status uplifted the spouses family

23
The husband was the center of the family
Made all family decisions
Controlled the money
Fathers authority over children was absolute until
death or he freed them before a judgeage didnt
matter

24
Women ran the household and, the wealthy,
bore many children
Dangerous10% of mothers died at childbirth
Surviving mothers faced the death of their
childrenin Florence, about 50% died by age 20
Due to survival rates, families tried to have many
children to ensure a surviving male heir
25
Arranged marriages fostered infidelity
Norms for men and women were different
Males married much later; large number of
young males available
Encouraged extramarital activities and
prostitution
26
Milan, Venice, Florence, the Papal States, and Naples
27
In late 14
th
century, Italy was a land of five
major states and numerous independent city-
states
Prosperity and supportive intellectual climate
created atmosphere for mid and upper
classes to rediscover Greco-Roman culture

28
Francesco Sforza, one of the leading
condottieri at the time (1447), conquered the
city of Milan and became its new duke
Both Visconti and Sforza families created
highly centralized state
Creative at devising taxes that brought great
revenue for the state
29
Maritime republic
Extremely stable oligarchy, governed by
merchant-aristocrats
Commercial empire brought enormous
revenuesgave Venice international power
Venice made efforts to expand its territory
north to protect trade routes and food supply
Milan and Florence attempted to counter those
efforts
30
The Republic of Florence dominated the
region of Tuscany
Dominated by a small merchant oligarchy by mid
15
th
century
In 1434, Cosimo de Medici took control
Kept republic forms of government for appearance
Ran government behind the scenes
Cosimo, later Grandson, Lorenzo the Magnificent,
dominated center of cultural Renaissance--Florence
31
Papal states were located in central Italy
Somewhat under the political control of the
popes, the papal residency in Avignon and the
Great Schism enabled cities such as Urbino,
Bologna, and Ferrara to become independent
Renaissance popes of the 15
th
century spent much
time attempting to reestablish their control over
the Papal States
32
Kingdom of Naples encompasses most of
southern Italy and Sicily
Fought over by the French and Aragonese during
the Renaissance
Mostly backward region with unruly nobles and
poverty-stricken peasants
Very little cultural glories of the Renaissance
33
There independent city-states controlled by
powerful ruling families
Urbino was the most significant and powerful
Most significant ruler was Federigo da
Montefeltro
Ruled using his money to offset poverty
Hired themselves out as condottiere
Honest and reliable
34
For the smaller Renaissance courts, women
often took the place of men at court while the
men were away
Many were honest and showed good judgment
Most famous was Isabella dEste
Called first lady of the world
One of finest libraries in all Italy
35
Italian world was fragmented by territorial
states
Fragmented states gave rise to strategy
called balance of power
Designed to prevent aggrandizement of one state
over anotherespecially evident after 1454
Initiated under the Peace of Lodi
Milan, Florence, and Naples vs Venice and papacy
Initiated 40 years of peace
36
Growth of powerful monarchies in France and Spain
caused trouble for Italians
The breakdown of balance of power in caused the wars
Also, the Duke of Milan invited the French to intervene in
Italian politics
Charles VIII of France was eager to oblige and entered Italy with
30,000 men
Other Italian states turned to Spain for help and Philip of Aragon
was eager to help
For 15 years, the French and Spanish fought it out in
Italy



37
Few Italian conceived of creating an alliance
or confederation to stave off other nations
Italians remained fiercely loyal to their own
petty states
38
The modern diplomatic system was a product
of the Italian Renaissance
The concept of an ambassador changed
during the Renaissance from a person acting
for everyone and for peace in general to
agents representing specific states
Small states in particular wanted to exchange
information for their own protection
Practices used today such as ambassador rights in
host countries and certain protocols


39
THE PRINCE (1513)
Machiavelli gave the best
expression to political power
sought during the
Renaissance
He served as a secretary to
the Florentine Council of Ten
a diplomatic post
Made numerous diplomatic
missions
After the Spanish victory in
Italy, republicans like
Machiavelli were sent into
exile


NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI
40
Machiavelli was forced to give up politics
He turned his attention to political thought
He wrote The Prince
Based on his concerns for Italys political problems and
his knowledge of ancient Rome
All about the acquisition and expansion of political
power as a means to restore and maintain order in his
time
Political activities should not be restricted by morality
41
Machiavelli was one of the first to abandon
morality for analysis of political activity
Machiavelli didnt believe the normal policy of
taking political action only if it contributes to the
common good of the people you serve
A princes use of power must be based on human
naturewhich he believed to be self-centered
People were ungrateful, fickle, deceptive, deceiving,
avoiders of danger, eager to gain, etc
42
Political activity should not be restricted to
moral considerations
A rulercannot conform to all those rules that
men who are thought good are expected to
respecthe is often obliged to break his word, to
be uncharitable, inhumane, and irreligioushe
should do what is right if he can; but he must be
prepared to do wrong if necessary
It is better to be feared than loved

43
Individualism and secularismtwo characteristics of the Italian Renaissance
44
Based on the study of classical works of the
Greeks and Romans
Humanists studied the liberal arts
Grammar, poetry, ethics, and history
Occupations of the secular humanists:
Teachers
Professors of rhetoric
Secretaries in the chancelleries
45
Petrarch has been called the father of the
Italian Renaissance
Spent most of his time in Italy as guest of various
princes and governments
Did more than anyone in 14
th
century to foster
Renaissance humanism
First to characterize the Middle Ages as period of
darkness


46
Petrarchs interest in the classics led him to
seek forgotten Latin manuscripts
His search led to a sacking of monastic libraries
He worried about his pursuits of secular content
He wanted to properly attend to his spiritual ideals
His allegory, The Ascent of Mount Ventoux, describes
his struggle to achieve a higher spiritual state (see text)
He did, however, emphasize the humanist use of
classical Latin: Cicero, the model for prose; Virgil
for poetry
47
In Florence, the humanism movement gave
rise to civic humanism
Civic Humanism was tied with civic pride,
responsibility, and spirit
Petrarch had emphasized the intellectual life was
one of solitudefamily and community life had
been rejected
The classical Roman Cicero, statesman and
intellectual, became their model
48
Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444), humanist,
Florentine patriot, and chancellor of the city
wrote a biography of Cicero titled The New
Cicero
Enthusiasm for fusion of political action and
literary creation
It was the duty of an intellectual to be active in
ones state
Humanists believed their study of the humanities
should be put to the service of the state
49
The growing interest in
classical Greek
civilization was a major
part of the humanist
movement
Humanists studied the
works of Plato and Greek
poets, dramatists,
historians, and orators
like Thucydides,
Euripides, and Sophocles
All were ignored in the
High Middle Ages as
irrelevant
50
A consciousness of being humanists
developed
Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) became a papal
secretary and wrote The Elegances of the
Latin Language
An effort to purify medieval Latin and restore
Latin to its position of dominion over the
vernacular
51
Second half of 15
th

century saw upsurge in
interest of the works of
Plato
Florentine Platonic
Academy was lead group
Cosimo de Medici, defacto
ruler of Florence, was
major patron
Exposition of the Platonic
philosophy was called
Neoplatonism

52
Marsilio Facino dedicated his life to
translation of Plato
Merged Christianity and Platonism into one
system
Postulated the idea of hierarchy of substances
from lowest form of physical matter to purest
spirit, God
Humans were seen in middle positionhighest
duty was to ascend to God
53
Hermeticism was another product of the
Florentine intellectual environment of the
late 15
th
century: emphasized two kinds of
writings
Occult sciences: astrology, alchemy, and magic
Theological and philosophical beliefs
Pantheism: seeing divinity in all aspects of nature and in
heavenly bodies and in earthly objects

54
Giordano Bruno was prominent 16
th
century
Hermeticists, stating, God as a whole is in all
things
Hermetic revival offered new view of
humankind
Humans had been created as divine beings with
endowed with creative power
However, humans had chosen to enter the
material world
55
Humans could recover their powers, but they
had to go through a regenerative process
Regenerated, they became true sages or magi
Magi had knowledge of God and truth and could
employ natures powers for good purposes
Ficino and friend/pupil Pico della Mirandola
(1463-1494)
Pico produced one of the most famous writings of
the Renaissance, Oration on the Dignity of Man
56
Oration
Drawn from nuggets of universal truth
Believed were part of Gods revelation to man
Believed in unlimited human potential
Pico: To him it is granted to have whatever he
chooses, to be whatever he wills
Pico: At last the knowledge of all nature
57
Renaissance humanists believed that human
beings could be dramatically changed by
education
They wrote books on education and founded
schools
Most famous of schools was founded at Mantua
Founded by Vittorino da Feltre
Ruler of small Italian state was Gian Francesco I Gonzaga
58
The core of academic training in Vittorinos
school was liberal studies
Pietro paola Vergerio wrote, Concerning Character
The importance of liberal arts as the key to true freedom
Enabling humans to reach their full potential
We call those studies liberal which are worthy of a free
man; those studies by which we attain and practice
virtue and wisdom; that education that calls forth,
trains, and develops those highest gifts of body and
mind which ennoble men

59
Liberal studies included history, moral
philosophy, eloquence (rhetoric), letters
9rammar and logic), poetry, mathematics,
astronomy, and music
The purpose was to produce individuals who
followed a path of virtue and wisdom and
possessed the rhetorical skills with which to
persuade others to do the same
60
Following the Greek precept of sound mind in
a sound body, the Mantua school stressed
physical education as well
Humanist schools were primarily for the elite
Few females attended the schools
Those females who did attend were discouraged
from mathematics and rhetoric
Religion and morals were thought to hold the
first place in the education of a Christian lady

61
Education was preparation for life
The aim of education was not create scholars,
but to produce complete citizens who could
participate in their communities
Vittorino: all are destined to live in society
and to practice virtue
The combination of the classics and
Christianity was seen as the best education
for Europes ruling classes

62
Humanist historian chronicled history
different from Middle Age historians
Humanists believed the classical period was
followed by an age of barbarism (Middle Ages)
The Middle Ages were succeeded by their own
age
They began thinking in terms of the passage of time
the past as the past
They began thinking of the periodization of history


63
Humanists were also responsible for
secularizing the writing of history
Reduced or eliminated role of miracles in history
not as anti-Christian, but as new approach
Emphasized documents and critical thinking
Attention was paid to political events
Emphasis moved to causation of history,
deemphasizing divine intervention and looked to
human motives



64
Francesco Guicciardini (1483-1540) achieved
the high point of Renaissance historiography
His History of Italy and History of Florence
represent the beginning of modern analytical
historiography
Guicciardini: the purpose of writing history was to
teach lessons
Emphasized military and political history
65
The Renaissance witnessed the invention of
printing, one of the most important
inventions of Western civilization
Its impact was immediate
Hand-carved wooden blocks had been done in the
West since the 12
th
century and in China before
New to Europe in the 15
th
century was metal
movable type--culminating between 1445-1450
66
Johannes Gutenberg played important role in
bring process to completion
Gutenbergs Bible (1455 or 1456) was the first
true book in the West produced from
movable type
The new printing spread rapidly throughout
Europe in the second half of the 15
th
century
Especially well known as a printing center
was Venice
67
By 1500, there were over 1000 printers in
Europe
Published almost 40,000 titles
Eight to ten million copies
Probably half of the books were religious
Next in importance were Greek and Latin classics
The printing of books encouraged the scholarly
research and desire to attain knowledge

68
More positive results of printing
Facilitated cooperation among scholars
Produced standardization and definitive texts
Expanding reading by all
Brought the new religious ideas of the
Reformation
Fostered science
69
Humans as the Focus of Attention
70
Leonardo da Vinci counseled that artists
should use real subjects in nature, not copies
of other artists
Renaissance artist pursued naturalism
A primary goal was to imitate nature
They tried to persuade onlookers of the reality of
their creation
Ultimately, human beings became the cental
focus of art
71
Most Italian artists maintain that Giotti of the
14
th
century began the imitation of nature
Masaccio followed Giotti with a cycle of
frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel, long
considered the first masterpiece of the Early
Renaissance
Masaccios massive three dimensional human
figures provided a model for later Florentine
artists

72
Masaccio emphasized a more realistic
relationship between figures and landscape
and more visual representation of laws of
perspective
A new realistic style of painting was born
The ideals of the human being in natural
surroundings prevailed
73
The new Renaissance style took other forms
but basically headed in two directions: Space
and Movement
Space
Mathematical side of painting
Working out the laws of perspective
Organization of space

74
Movement
Included anatomical structure
Attempt to portray human body under stress
Realistic portrayal of human nude became a
foremost preoccupation

75
Sandro Botticelli, with his interest in Greek
and Roman mythology was well reflected in
his work, Primavera
Well defined characters, yet they possess an
otherworldly quality far removed from the realism
that characterized early Renaissance
76
Advances by Florentine painters were
matched by Florentine sculptures and
architects
Donato di Donatellos statue of David
First known life-size freestanding bronze nude in
European art since antiquity
Celebrated Florentine heroism
Radiated simplicity, strength, and the dignity of
humanity


77
Filiippo Brunelleschi drew inspiration from
Roman antiquity
He worked hard on the creation of a new
architecture
First challenge was to complete the 140-foot opening of
the Cathedral of Florence
He devised a dome of less weight and 24 ribs
78
Brunelleschi created a better example of his
new architecture when he built the Church of
San Lorenzo
Inspired by Roman models
Interior very different from medieval designs
Created amore human-centered space
Classical columns, rounded arches, and coffered ceiling
Didnt overwhelm the worshipper
79
The emphasis on human individuality in the
Renaissance came out in an emphasis on
portraiture
Prominent people had portraits on tombs and
other places
Renderings depicted accurately the facial features
plus the inner qualities of the individual
80
By the 15
th
century, Italian painters,
sculptures and architects had mastered
scientific applications and were now moving
toward more personalized creative
expressions
The High Renaissance was marked by
increasing importance of Rome as the new
cultural center of the Italian Renaissance
81
Dominated by three artistic giants: Leonardo
da Vinci (1452-1519), Raphael (1483-1520),
and Michelangelo (1475-1564)
Leonardo da Vinci
A transitional artist
Fifteenth century tradition of complete study of
nature
Dissected bodies to ensure his anatomical portrayals
were correct


82
Leonardo
Stressed the need to advance beyond realism
Emphasis was on moving to idealized form of
nature
In Leonardos Last Supper, he hoped to reveal an
individuals inner self through gestures and
movement

83
The Artist High
Renaissance
Leonardo attempts to move
from a realistic to idealized
portrayal of the human figure.

He attempted to depict a
persons inner character
through gesture and
movement

In his fresco, he used an
experimental technique which
led to its physical deterioration
84
The Artistic High
renaissance
Perhaps Leonardos most
famous work, the painting,
Mona Lisa
85
The Artistic High
Renaissance
One of Leonardos many
drawings, this one of a flying
machine
86
The Artistic High
Renaissance
Leonardos drawing and
explanation of an embryo and
87
88
Raphael Sanzio was regarded as one of Italys
best painters at age 25
Acclaimed for his numerous madonnas
Attempted ideal beauty, above human standards
Well known for his frescoes in the Vatican
Palace
His School of Athens reveals a world of balance,
harmony, and order
89
The Artistic High
Renaissance
Raphael, School of Athens

This is one frescoe Raphael
painted for Pope Julius II for the
papal apartment in the Vatican
Raphael created an imaginary
gathering of ancient
philosophers.

In the center stand Plato and
Aristotle

At the left is Pythagoras,
showing his system of
proportions on a slate

At the right is Ptolemy, holding
a celestial globe

Balance, harmony, and order


90
Michelangelo
Buonarroti, an
accomplished painter,
sculptor, and architect,
was another giant of the
High Renaissance
Highly motivated to
create, completed
numerous projects
Influenced by
Neoplatoism, especially
depiction of figures on
ceiling of the Sistine
Chapel
91
In 1508, Pope Julius II called Michelangelo to
Rome, commissioning him to decorate the
Sistine Chapels ceiling
Project not completed until 1512
Nine scenes from the book of Genesis
In Creation of Man, Adam awaits the divine spark
Figures were fashioned ideally, with excellent
proportions and beauty reflecting divine beauty;
the more beautiful, the more God-like
92
The Artistic High
Renaissance
Michelangelos Creation of
Adam

Adam awaits the divine spark

The more beautiful the body,
the more God-like the figure
93
The Artistic High
Renaissance
Michelangelos statue of David
was commissioned by the
Florentine government in 1501
and finished in 1504

Michelangelo: I only take away
the surplus, the statue is
already there

The statue is 14 feet high.

David proudly proclaims the
beauty of the human body and
the glory of human beings
94
The Renaissance was well known for its
architecture, particularly that Donato
Bramante (1444-1514)
He captured the grandeur of ancient Rome
through his design of the Tempietto (Little
Temple) at the site of Saint Peters martydom
His design impressed who Pope Julius II
commissioned him to design Saint Peters
Basilica

95
By the end of the 15
th
century, a
transformation in the status of artist occurred
Artists were no longer considered just artisans
with certain skills
Gifted artists were considered artist geniuses
Artists were seen as heroes, e.g. Michelangelo
was frequently referred to as II Divinothe
Divine One
96
The artists of the High Renaissance were the
first to embody the modern concept of artist
Artists profited both economically and in
social status
By now mingling with upper classes and
political elites, artists learned the new
intellectual theories which they embodied in
their art
97
Human form took the primary form of
expression in the north
Emphasis was on stain glass windows and
wooden paneled paintings for alter pieces
Flanders had most influential school of art
Oil painting, popular in the north, permitted
artists to project staggering details in their
precise portraits
98
Jan van Eyck was one of first to use oils
Painters painted more the outward
appearance of things
Empirical observation of visual reality
The accurate portrayal of details

99
Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) from Nuremberg
was effected by the Italians
Made trips to Italy
Captured laws of perspective and proportion
However, he did not reject minute details
characteristic of northern artists
Integrated his artistry into a careful examination
of the human form
100
The Dukes of Burgundy attracted some of the
best artists and musicians of the time
Guillaume Dufay, most important composer
Lived in medieval France and early Renaissance Italy
Combined the best of both worlds
Changed composition of Massreplaced Gregorian
chants with secular tunes to form the basis of Mass
Served as a reminder that music ceased to be just in the
service of God
101
The Renaissance madrigal was a poem set to
music
Origins: 14
th
century Italian courts
Twelve-line poems written in vernacular
Theme was emotional or erotic love
Employed text painting with 5 or 6 voices
Melody would change with emphasis on certain words
or phrases

102
The New Monarchies attempt to impose their will as Europe takes shape. They try to
improve their states from the early 15
th
to later 15
th
century, particularly in France,
England, and Spain
103
The Hundred Years War had left France prostrate
Depopulation, desolate farmlands, ruined
commerce, unruly nobles, etc.
The war also engendered a sense of loyalty--the
understanding of a common enemy
The war permitted strengthening the kings
authority
Charles VII was able to secure permission for a
royal army from the Estates-General




104
King Charles VII
The Estates-General also permitted a taille,
annual taxusually from land or other property
Ensured certain amount of power
King Louis XI (1461-1483), (known as the
spider for his wily ways)
Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, was problem
Charles tried to create middle kingdom between
France and Germany

105
Charles the Bold
He died in battle and Louis took Burgundy for
France
Louis added Anjou, Maine, Bar, and
Provence, and was given credit for
development of strong French monarchy
106
The Hundred Years War also hurt the English
Even more domestic turmoil broke out with
the War of the Roses
The House of Lancaster (red rose) verses the
House of York (white rose)
Many aristocratic families brought into conflict
Henry Tudor, Duke of Richmond, defeated the last
Yorkish king, Richard III, and established the new
Tudor dynasty
107
108
The first Tudor King, Henry VII reduced
dissension and established strong monarchy
Abolished private armies of the aristocrats
Special commissions to trusted nobles raised
armies for special campaigns then were
disbanded
Established the Court of Star Chamber which did
not use juries and permitted torture to extract
confessions
Henry VII managed the monarchy well
Extracted resources from traditional sources
Use diplomacy to avoid wars
Kept taxes low
Henrys policies left England with stable,
prosperous government and gained status for
the monarchy itself

109
After the conquest of the Iberian Penisnsula
from the Muslims, the peninsula was divided
into several smaller states, the largest which
was Aragon and Castile
Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon
were married in a dynastic (not political)
union
The two states maintained their own parliaments
110
Ferdinand and Isabella worked to build a
strong central government for both states
They reorganized the military and created
and built the best army in Europe by the 16
th

century
They achieved permission from the pope to
select the most important church officials
They realized the importance of the Churchs
power

111
Ferdinand and Isabella received permission to
institute the Inquisition in Spain
Converts were effected, but not Jews or Muslims
Thus, they expelled all Jew and Muslims
The two Most Catholic monarchs had achieved
absolute religious orthodoxyto be Spanish was
to be Catholic
Uniformity policy was enforced by the Inquisition
112
The Holy Roman Empire failed to develop a
strong monarchy
The Empire remained in the hands of the
Habsburg dynasty
The Habsburgs instituted dynastic marriages
Through marriages, the Hapsburgs gained
international power
Rulers of France feared they would be surrounded
by the Hapsburgs
113
Much was expected of Maximilian I
He had strong opposition from German
princes
Through a series of marriages and untimely
deaths, Charles, Maximilians grandson,
became heir to the Habsburg, Burgundian,
and Spanish lines, making him the leading
monarch of his age
114
The rulers of Eastern Europe had many
obstacles in the way of control
Different ethnic and religious groups could not get
along
Much of the problem with Poland until the later
15
th
century revolved around disagreements
between crown and the landed nobles
Hungary became one of the most significant
countries in Europe under King Matthias Corvinus

115
King Mathias
Broke the power of the wealthy lords
Patronized the humanist culture
Brought Italian scholars and artists to his capital
Since the 13
th
century, Russia had been under
the domination of the Mongols
Ivan III (1462-1505) was able to take
advantage of dissention within the Mongols
to through off their yoke by 1480
116
Eastern Europe was increasingly threatened
by the Ottoman Empire
The Byzantine Empire had served as a buffer
between the Muslim Middle East and the
Latin West for centuries
The Empire was weakened by the sack of
Constantinople in 1204
The threat of the Ottomans finally doomed
the Byzantine Empire
117
The Ottoman Turks moved quickly through
the lands of the Seljuk Turks and the
Byzantine Empire
Bypassing Constantinople, they moved
through Bulgaria and into the lands of the
Serbians
At the battle of Kosovo, Ottoman forces defeated
the Serbs, both leaders dying in battle

118
Battle of Kosovo (1389) became a battlefield
long remembered and revered by the Serbs
Not until 1480 were Bosnia, Albania, and the
rest of Serbia added to the Ottoman Empire
in the Balkans
The Ottoman Turks completed the demise of
the Byzantine Empire by defeating the army
at Constantinople
119
The Turks began to pressure the West
By the end of the 15
th
century, they were
threatening Hungary, Austria, Bohemia, and
Poland
The Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, became
their bitter enemy in the 16
th
century

120
The Council of Constance ends the Great Schism, but finds the issues of
heresy and reform more challenging
121
While inquisitions had dealt with heresy in
the past, the Lollardy and Hussitism fostered
difficulties
Wyclif and Lollardy
English Lollardy was a product of the Oxford
Theologian John Wycliff
Disgust with clerical corruption led to attacks on
Christian beliefs and practices
122
John Wycliff
Led attack on papal authority
Attacked Christian beliefs and values
Urged the Bible to be made available in the
vernacular of all languages
Condemned pilgrimages, the veneration of saints,
and rituals and rites developed in medieval church
His followers were called Lollards




123
Hus and the Hussites
Royal marriage between England and Bohemia
enabled Lollard ideas to spread to Bohemia
John Hus, chancellor of the University of Prague
urged the elimination worldliness and corruption
in the clergy
Hus also attacked the excessive power of the
papacy within the Catholic Church
124
John Hus
Strong support from German clergy and Czechs
The Council of Constance summoned Hus
Hus was granted safe passage by Emperor
Sigismund
Hoped for free hearing but was arrested,
condemned as heretic and burned at the stake
(1415)

125
John Hus
His death started revolutionary upheaval in
Bohemia resulting in the Hussite wars wracking
the Holy Roman Empire until a truce in 1436
Reform in the Church
The Council of Constance passed two reform
decrees: Sacrosancta and Frequens

126
Sacrosancta
Stated a general council of the church got its
authority from God
Every Christian, including the pope, was subject to
its authority
Frequens
Provided for the holding of general councils to
ensure that church reform could continue


127
Popes refused to cooperated with decrees
that diminished their authority
Popes worked for 30 years to defeat the
counciliar movement
128
Finally, Pope Pius Ii issued the papal bull
Execrabilis , condemning appeals to a council
over the head of a pope as heretical
129
The line of popes from the end of the Great
Schism to the beginnings of the Reformation
in the early 16
th
century
While the primary function of the popes was
spiritual, the manner popes pursued their
political activities was shocking
The use of intrigue and bloodshed was not
appropriate
130
Julius II was known as the fiery pope
because he led troops into battle
Popes could not build dynasties over
generations of offspring, so they relied on
nepotism to promote the families interests
Pope Sixtus made five nephews cardinals, for
example

131
Renaissance popes were great patrons of
Renaissance culture
Julius II began construction on Saint Peters
Basilica
Leo X commissioned Raphael to do paintings and
sped up the construction of Saint Peters
Rome became literary and artistic center of the
Renaissance
132
Renaissance was a period of transition
Economic, political, and social trends started in
High Middle Ages
A new vision of humankind
Fundamental questions on the value of the
individual
Renaissance ideas were mostly for the upper
classesthe elite

133
New questions were raised about medieval
traditions
Humanists raised fundamental questions
about the Catholic Churcha powerful and
important institution
134