MEDICINES

Drugs are substances that, when absorbed

into the body of a living organism, alters
normal bodily function
In pharmacology, a drug is defined
as"a chemical substance used in
the treatment, cure, prevention, or
diagnosis of disease or used to
otherwise enhance physical or
mental well-being.
The major classifications of drugs are as follows

1 Prescription drugs :- Drugs obtained only by the
written prescription of a doctor

2 Over the counter drugs:- Drugs which can be
purchased without the written prescription of a
doctor
3 Recreational drugs:- drugs used to help
a person relax or socialize. ex. Alcohol,
Tea, Coffee, Tobacco, Chocolate

4 Illicit drugs :- These are drugs prohibited
by the authority. These are the most
notorious type of drugs. Generally,
recognized as harmful. All are
PSYCHOACTIVE (have the potential to
alter mood or behavior
Mode of Drug Action:
It is important to distinguish between
actions of drugs and their effects. Actions of
drugs are the biochemical physiological
mechanisms by which the chemical
produces a response in living organisms.
The effect is the observable consequence
of a drug action. For example, the action
of penicillin is to interfere with cell wall
synthesis in bacteria and the effect is the
death of the bacteria.
One major problem of pharmacology is that no
drug produces a single effect. The primary effect
is the desired therapeutic effect. Secondary
effects are all other effects beside the desired
effect which may be either beneficial or harmful.
Drugs are chosen to exploit differences
between normal metabolic processes and
any abnormalities which may be present.


Since the differences may not be very
great, drugs may be nonspecific in action
and alter normal functions as well as the
undesirable ones. This leads to
undesirable side effects.
The biological effects observed after a
drug has been administered are the result
of an interaction between that chemical
and some part of the organism.


Mechanisms of drug action can be
viewed from different perspectives,
namely, the site of action and the general
nature of the drug-cell interaction.
l. Killing Foreign Organisms:
Chemotherapeutic agents act by killing
or weakening foreign organisms such as
bacteria, worms, viruses.


The main principle of action is selective
toxicity, i.e. the drug must be more toxic
to the parasite than to the host.
2. Stimulation and Depression:

Drugs act by stimulating or depressing
normal physiological functions.

Stimulation increases the rate of
activity while depression reduces the
rate of activity
Drug use and drug abuse:-
When drugs are used to treat an illness,
prevent a disease and improve health
condition, it is termed drug use.
Intake of drugs for reasons other
than medical in a manner that affects
physical or mental functioning is
termed drug abuse.
Antibiotics:- Antibiotics are substance
produced by microorganism which has
the capacity of inhibiting the growth
and even destroying other micro
organism .



Examples : Penicillines, Ciphalosporin,
Chlorumphenicol,Tetracyclin etc
Penicillins are first introduced in
1940 Alexander Fleming .


These are bactericidal and inhibit
cell wall synthesis in bacteria, kill
a wide variety of them.

The basic structure in penicillin
contains lactum ring and are
called lactum
Examples: Penicilline-G , Amoxycilline , Ampicilline Examples: Penicilline-G , Amoxycilline , Ampicilline
Examples: Penicilline-G , Amoxycilline
, Ampicilline
Examples: Penicilline-G , Amoxycilline , Ampicilline
Mechanism of action of Antibiotics:-
Penicillins enter the bacteria via the cell
wall. Inside the cell, they bind to
penicillin-binding protein.

Once bound, normal cell wall synthesis is
disrupted. As a result: bacteria cells die
from cell distruction.
Uses of anti biotics: For the Prevention
and treatment of infections caused by
susceptible bacteria, such as: gram-
positive bacteria -Streptococcus,
Enterococcus, Staphylococcus species
Misuse of Anti biotic and its consequences :- The widespread
use of antibiotics both inside and outside of medicine is
playing a significant role in the emergence of resistant
bacteria. Antibiotic resistance is a specific type of drug
resistance when a microorganism has the ability of
withstanding the effects of antibiotics.
Antibiotic resistance evolves via natural selection
acting upon random mutation.

The volume of antibiotic prescribed is the major factor
in increasing rates or bacterial resistance rather than
compliance with antibiotics.

Inappropriate prescribing of antibiotics has been
attributed to a number of causes including: people who
insist on antibiotics
What is antibiotic misuse:-

Taking antibiotics when they are not needed
eg; for viral infections.

When needed, taking antibiotics incorrectly:

Stopping the medicine when you feel better

Not finishing the prescription,saving
antibiotics for a future illness and sharing or
using someone elses medicine
Following care shall be taken to prevent the mis
use of anti biotics


Antibiotics should only be taken at your doctors
prescription.


To ensure that the infection is totally under control,
confirm the number of days of treatment regimen
with your doctor or pharmacist and complete the
whole course accordingly.
If you miss one dose, take it as soon as you
remember but never take a double dose.


Complete the whole course by following doctors
prescription to take antibiotics on the right time at the
right dose.
SULPHA DRUGS(sulphonamides):-

Sulfonamides are synthetic antimicrobial
agents with a wide spectrum encompassing
most gram-positive and many gram-negative
organisms.


These drugs were the first efficient treatment to
be employed systematically for the prevention
and cure of bacterial infections
Classifications of sulphonamides


Sulphonamides may be classified
broadly on the basis of their site of
action as
i)Suplhonamide for general infections:-

These are invareobly employed against the
streptococcal, meningococcal , gonococcal,and
pneumococcal infections .

Examples : Sulfanilamide, sulphapyredene,
sulpha thiazole,sulfadiazine etc.


ii) Sulpphonamides for urenary infections:-

Examples:- Sulfacetamide,sulfafurazole etc
iii)Sulphonamides for intestenal infection:- Examples:- Sulfaguanidene, pthalyl sulfathiazole etc
iv)Sulphonamide for local infections:- Examples:- sulfacetamide sodium,Mafenide etc

iii)Sulphonamides for intestenal
infection:-

Examples:- Sulfaguanidene, pthalyl
sulfathiazole etc
iv)Sulphonamide for local infections:-

Examples:- sulfacetamide
sodium,Mafenide etc
MODE OF ACTION OF SULPHONAMIDES
Sulphanomides are bacteriostatic in
nature.However in large doses they may also act as
bactericidal.
Sulphanomide sensitive microorganism require p-
aminobenzoic acid(PABA),for the synthesis of folic
acid,which is essential for the synthesis of DNA and
RNA and there for for the growth and multiplication
of bacteria..
Sulphanomides can compete with
PABA and prevent the utilization of
PABA and thereby the synthesis of
bacterial DNA and RNA,

Thus the sulphanomides have
selective effect on the sensitive
bacteria
ANALGESICS AND ANTI INFLAMMATORY
AGENTS:

Anti inflammatory agents are drugs used to diminish
or reduce inflammations and pain arising from it.


Non narcotic analgesic differ from narcotic analgesic
in the way that they do not depress the CNS(central
nervous system) and are devoid of addiction liability
General mode of action:-

Prostaglandins play an important role in radiating pain ,
fever and inflammation


Antipyretics , Analgesics and Anti-inflammatory effects of
drugs are due to inhibition of synthesis and release of
prostaglandins.

Release of prostaglandin is reduced by stablilsing the cell
membrane and the synthesis is reduced by blocking the
enzyme prostaglandin synthetase
Examples and uses of antipyretics , analgesics and anti-
inflammatory agents

Asprin:- Used as antipyretic, Antirheumatic and antithrombolytic
agent


Paracetamol (Aceteminophen):- Used as antipyretic and mild
analgesic


Analgin(Novalgin):- Used to relieve mild to moderate pain
Mefenamic acid:- Used in the relief of head
ache, tooth ache, muscular pain and stomach
pain

Ibuprofen:- Used to relief muscular pain, tooth
ache and joint pain.

Diclofenac:- Used in the treatment of
rheumatoid arthritis,spondylitis and acute
musculoskeletal disorders
ANTI HISTAMINES:

A histamine antagonist (commonly called an
antihistamine) is a pharmaceutical drug that inhibits
the action of histamine by blocking it from attaching
to histamine receptors; or it may inhibit the
enzymatic activity of histidine decarboxylase,
catalyzing the transformation of histidine into
histamine (atypical antihistaminics).


H
1
antagonists are commonly referred to as
antihistamines.
Antihistamines are commonly used for the
relief of allergies caused by intolerance of
proteins. Itching and sneezing are
suppressed by antihistamine blocking of H1-
receptors on nasal sensory nerves


Eg:- Chlorpheniramine, Cetirizine, Cyclizine,
Brompheniramine.
Tranquilizers:-

Tranquilizers are central nervous system
depressant drugs classified as sedative-
hypnotics.


Tranquilizers are classified into two main
categories: minor tranquilizers (anxiolytics, or
anti-anxiety agents) and major tranquilizers
(neuroleptics), drugs used to treat severe
mental illnesses
. Minor tranquilizers are used in the treatment of
anxiety, tension, panic attacks, and insomnia.


Neuroleptics specifically relieve the symptoms of
mental illness, but are also used as sedatives
before surgical and medical procedures; they are
rarely misused for other purposes.
Minor tranquilizers are, however, frequently
abused.


Minor tranquilizers may include Valium (diazepam),
Librium/Novopoxide (chlordiazepoxide), Halcion
(triazolam), ProSom (estazolam), Xanax, and Ativan
How do tranquilizers work? At therapeutic doses,
tranquilizers generally relieve anxiety and may in
some people induce a loss of inhibition and a
feeling of well-being.



Many tranquilizers tend to induce sleep. As the
dose of the tranquilizer is increased, so are the
degree of sedation and the impairment of mental
acuity and physical coordination.
NARCOTICS:-
Narcotics are addictive drugs that reduce the
user's perception of pain and induce
euphoria (a feeling of exaggerated and
unrealistic well-being).
Narcotics are the oldest as well as the strongest
analgesics, or pain-relieving drugs, known to
humans .
Narcotics are central nervous system depressants.
These drugs often induce a state of euphoria or
feeling of extreme well-being, and they are
powerfully addictive.


The body quickly builds a tolerance to narcotics in as
little as two to three days, so that greater doses are
required to achieve the same effect


. Because of the addictive qualities of these
drugs, most countries in the twenty-first
century have strict laws regarding the
production and distribution of narcotics


Examples include morphine, codeine,
heroin, methadone etc
How Narcotics Work:-
The central nervous system in humans and other
mammals contains five different types of opioid
receptor proteins, located primarily in the brain,
spinal cord, and digestive tract.
When a person takes an opioid medication, the
drug attaches to these opioid receptors in the
brain and spinal cord and decreases the person's
perception of pain. Narcotics do not, however,
reduce or eliminate the cause of the pain.
Some of the opioid receptors (known as mu and sigma
receptors) influence a person's perception of pleasure.
When a narcotic medication stimulates these receptor
proteins, the person typically experiences intense
sensations of euphoria or well-being.
The speed with which these drugs take effect depends
on the method of administration; IV narcotics reach
their peak effectiveness within ten minutes, while oral
narcotics take about an hour and a half, and skin
patches take between two and four hours.
General Use of Narcotics:
Narcotics have several legitimate uses:


NarcoticAnalgesic: Doctors frequently prescribe oral
codeine and propoxyphene (alone or in combination with
aspirin) for pain control after oral surgery, for severe
menstrual cramps, and for temporary pain relief after other
outpatient surgical procedures.


Intravenous narcotics may be given for several days after
major surgery to relieve the patient's discomfort..
Subsequent methods of administering opioids
following surgery include a sustained-release
injected form of morphine sulfate (DepoMorphine)
and a patient-controlled transdermal system (E-
TRANS) that releases doses of fentanyl when the
patient pushes a button attached to the arm or
upper chest.


Intravenous narcotics may also be used for
palliative care, to relieve the pain of patients
diagnosed with terminal cancer
Antitussive: Antitussives are medications
given to control coughing. Codeine is often
effective in relieving severe coughs and is a
common ingredient in prescription cough
mixtures
Antidiarrheal: Paregoric, a liquid preparation
containing powdered opium, anise oil, and
glycerin, is sometimes prescribed for severe
diarrhea.


The opium in paregoric works to control
diarrhea because it slows down the rhythmic
contractions of the intestines that ordinarily
move food through the digestive tract.
Lomotil, another antidiarrheal
medication, contains a synthetic opioid
known as diphenoxylate; it is often
recommended for treating cancer
patients with diarrhea caused by
radiation therapy.
Disinfectants and Antiseptics:-

Disinfection may be defined as: Cleaning an article of some
or all of the pathogenic organisms which may cause
infection. Perfect disinfectant would also offer complete and
full sterilization, without harming other forms of life, be
inexpensive, and non-corrosive.

Disinfectants are used on inanimate objects in contrast to
antiseptics, which are used on living tissue. Eg;- Phenolics
as Amyl phenol, Hypochlorates etc
Antiseptics:

Antiseptics are Agents used on the
skin and mucous membranes to kill
microorganisms and are not for use on
inanimate objects.

Eg: Chlorhexidene, Iodene,Betadene
etc .