Chapter 2

Seeing and Thinking

Sociologically
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Societypeople living in the same
geographic area who share a culture
and a common identity and whose
members fall under the same political
authority
Macrolevelbroad social forces and
structural features of society
Microlevelimmediate, everyday
experiences of individuals
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Top-down effect
A society influences its members
through certain identifiable structural
features and historical circumstances
Bottom-up effect
Each individual has a role in forming a
society and influencing the course of its
history
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Through structured social movements
Through day-to-day communication,
we construct, reaffirm, experience, and
alter the reality of our society.
Although historical events themselves
dont change, their meaning and
relevance do.
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Through other individuals (social
influence)
Through social interaction
Through social structure (societal
influence)
Statuses/roles + groups + organizations
+ social institutions + culture = society
Thinking Sociologically
Ordinary people and cruel acts: What
would you do?
Social psychologist Stanley Milgram
(1974)
Impact of authority
Following orders
How do you know?
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Status: any named social position
that people can occupy (e.g.,
mother, student, electrician)
Status can be ascribed or achieved
Ascribed status: acquired at birth or
taken on involuntarily
Achieved status: earned or taken on
voluntarily
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Set of rights, obligations, behaviors, and
duties associated with a particular status
Role strain: when a person lacks the
resources to fulfill the demands of a role
Role conflict: when the demands of one
expected role clash with the demands of
another expected role
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In-groups: when we belong and feel a
sense of loyalty
Out-groups: when we dont belong and feel
some antagonism
Dyads and triads: groups of two or three
people
Coalition: a subgroup of a triad formed
when two members unite against the third
member
Primary groups: long-time groups with
strong direct attachment
Secondary groups: more formal and
impersonal
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Organizations: Large, complex network of
positions, created for a specific purpose
and characterized by a hierarchical
division of labor
Social institutions: Stable set of roles,
statuses, groups, and organizations that
provides a foundation for behavior in
some major area of social life
Examples: education, family, politics,
religion, health care, or the economy

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A societys personality: the language,
values, beliefs, rules, behaviors, and
physical artifacts that characterize a society
Provide general rules to live by
Values: provide ways to judge or assess
goals or outcomes for their lives
Globalization: managing culture and values
in a connected world
Norms: culturally defined rules of conduct;
expectations for behavior
Three Sociological
Perspectives
Structural-functionalist perspective
Conflict perspective
Symbolic interactionist perspective
Macro- and micro-levels of analysis
Each has weaknesses
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Macro-level analysis
Dominant theoretical tradition through
much of the 20th century
Emphasizes how society is structured
to maintain stability; emphasizes
consensus and cooperation
Key theorists: Durkheim, Parsons,
Merton
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Assumptions of Structural
Functionalism
Societies are integrated systems
comprised of specialized parts that
serve functions
Manifest, or intended
Latent, or unintended
Society is like an organism
Dysfunctional parts will gradually
cease to exist
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Conflict Perspective
Macro-level of analysis
Addresses some deficiencies of S-F
theory
Emphasizes power differentials,
dominance and inequality
Key theorists: Marx, Dahrendorf,
conflict-feminist theorists
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Assumptions of Conflict
Perspective
Societies are competitive arenas
where groups are in a constant
struggle for resources
Some groups benefit more from
existing social arrangements than
others, and will exercise their power
to maintain the status quo
Change is inevitable
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Symbolic Interactionism
Micro-level of analysis
Seeks to understand society by
examining day-to-day interactions of
people
Particular focus on language,
gestures, and symbols and assigning
meaning to situations
Key theorists: Blumer, Goffman
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Assumptions of Symbolic
Interactionism
Reality is a social construction
What one believes to be real is ones
own reality, and actions and reactions
are based on that reality
The meaning that one attributes to a
situation is largely based on past
experiences
Change happens when one improves
on a script
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Theoretical Weaknesses
Structural-functionalism: does not
address power differential, inequality,
or social change
Conflict: lacks a strong explanation for
social harmony and cohesion
Symbolic interactionism: has to be
taken to the macro-level to see the
connections of larger institutions


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Thinking Sociologically
How can you understand and explain
college sports from each of the
sociological perspectives?
Structural functionalist
Conflict
Symbolic interactionist
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