Orbital mechanics

Clarification of orbital terms, calculations and the way a satellite is

represented in space

Riaan Greeff
Vaal University of Technology
Keplers laws
Pages 19 - 28
These laws arise from observation by Kepler of the movement of the planets around
the sun:
The planets move in a plane; the orbits described are ellipses with the sun at one
focus (1602).
The vector from the sun to the planet sweeps equal areas in equal times (the law of
areas, 1605).
The ratio of the square of the period T of revolution of a planet around the sun to
the cube of the semi-major axis a of the ellipse is the same for all planets (1618).
Newtons law
Newton extended the work of Kepler and, in 1667, discovered the universal
law of gravitation. This law states that two bodies of mass m and M attract
each other with a force which is proportional to their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance r between them:

Where G is a constant, called the universal gravitation constant, and

From the universal law of gravitation and using the work of Galileo, a
contemporary of Kepler, Newton proved Keplers laws and identified the
assumptions (the problem of two spherical and homogeneous bodies). He
also modified these laws by introducing the concept of orbit perturbations
to take account of actual movements.
As the mass of the earth , the product GM has a value
Relative movement of two point bodies
The movement of satellites around the earth observes Keplers laws to a first
approximation.
The proof results from Newtons law and the following assumptions:
The mass m of the satellite is small with respect to the mass M of the earth which is
assumed to be spherical and homogeneous.
Movement occurs in free space; the only bodies present are the satellite and the
earth.
The actual movement must take account of the fact that the earth is neither spherical
nor homogeneous, the attraction of the sun and moon, and other perturbing forces.
Keplerian potential
Consider an orthogonal coordinate system (Figure 2.1) whose origin is at the
centre of the earth and whose z axis coincides with the line of the poles
(assumed fixed in space). The satellite SL of mass m (m << M )is at a
distance r from the centre of the earth O (r is the vector OSL).
The force of gravitation F acting on the satellite can be written:
F = GMmr/r
3
(N)
Position of the satellite in the orbit
In the plane of the orbit, using the
notation of Figure 2.3, the equation
of the orbit in polar coordinates is
given by equation (2.15):
r = a(1-e
2
)/(1+e cos v) (m)
Position of the satellite in the orbit
True anomaly (v). The position of the
satellite is determined by the angle v,
called the true anomaly, an angle counted
positively in the direction of movement of
the satellite from 0 to 360, between the
direction of the perigee and the direction
of the satellite.
Eccentric anomaly (E). The position of the
satellite can also be defined by the
eccentric anomaly E, which is the argument
of the image in the mapping which
transforms the elliptical trajectory into its
principal circle
Position of the satellite in the orbit
Mean movement (n). It is permissible to
define the mean movement of the satellite
n as the mean angular velocity of the
satellite of period T in its orbit.
Mean anomaly (M). The position of the
satellite can thus be defined by the mean
anomaly M which would be the true
anomaly of a satellite in a circular orbit of
the same period T. The mean anomaly is
expressed as a function of time t.
Position of the orbital plane in space
The position of the orbital
plane in space is specified by
means of two parameters
the inclination i and the
right ascension of the
ascending node .
Position of the orbital plane in space
Inclination of the plane of the orbit (i). This
is the angle at the ascending node,
counted positively in the forward
direction between 0 and 180, between
the normal (directed towards the east) to
the line of nodes in the equatorial plane
and the normal (in the direction of the
velocity) to the line of nodes in the
orbital plane. This is also the angle at the
centre of the coordinate system between
the angular momentum H of the orbit
and the Oz axis (the direction of the
pole). For an inclination less than 90, the
satellite rotates eastward in the same
direction as the earth (this is called a
direct or non-retrograde orbit). For an
inclination greater than 90, the satellite
rotates westward in the opposite
direction to the earth (this is called a
retrograde orbit).
Position of the orbital plane in space
Right ascension of the ascending
node (). The right ascension of
the ascending node (RAAN) is
the angle taken positively from
0 to 360 in the forward
direction, between the
reference direction and that of
the ascending node of the orbit
(the intersection of the orbit
with the plane of the equator,
the satellite crossing this plane
from south to north).
Position of the orbital plane in space
The orientation of the orbit
in its plane is defined by the
argument of the perigee .
This is the angle, taken
positively from 0 to 360 in
the direction of motion of
the satellite, between the
direction of the ascending
node and the direction of the
perigee.
Position of the orbital plane in space
A knowledge of the five parameters
(a, e, i, and v) completely defines
the trajectory of the satellite in
space. The motion of the satellite in
this trajectory can be defined by one
of the anomalies (v, E or M).
The nodal angular elongation u can
also be used to define the position of
the satellite in its orbit. This is the
angle taken positively in the
direction of motion from 0 to 360
between the direction of the
ascending node and the direction of
the satellite: u = -v. This parameter
is useful in the case of a circular orbit
where the perigee is unknown.
Calculation of satellite orbit
height and linear speed of a
geostationary satellite
EASAT 4
VUT
R Greeff
Calculation example 1
How do you determine the velocity of a polar-orbiting satellite when the
altitude and the period of the orbit are known? For example, if a 750-mile
high satellite orbits Earth every 3 hours, 45 minutes, how fast is it traveling?
That is, what is the velocity of the satellite?
Answer for example 1
Step 1: Change 3 hours, 45 minutes to a decimal format:
3 45/60 = 3 = 3.75 hours

The radius of an orbit is calculated from the center of the Earth. Consequently, the radius of an
orbit equals the radius of Earth plus the altitude of the satellite above the Earth.

Step 2: According to the formula for circumference, C = 2 , the distance traveled is:
C = 2 (3960.5 + 750) 29,581 miles
Where 3,960.5 miles is the radius of the Earth (R).

Step 3: The distance of the orbit (29,581 miles) is traveled each 3.75 hours. Therefore, the
speed or velocity (v) of the satellite is determined by dividing distance by time:
29,581 miles 3.75 hours 7,888 miles per hour
Calculation example 2
How do you find the altitude of a geosynchronous satellite that is orbiting
Earth above the equator?
The velocity of the satellite must be known. Using a value for the velocity, we
could ask, "If there is a satellite traveling at 6,900 miles per hour, how high
must it be orbiting?"
This question is sometimes difficult for students because there is only one
number in the problem. This is not true!
Answer for example 2
Step 1: A geostationary satellite "orbits" the Earth once every 24 hours.
The time of the orbit is what makes it appear not to move. It is moving in unison with Earth's rotation.
Step 2: If a satellite travels 6,900 miles in 1 hour, how far does it travel in the 1-day orbit (a period of one day)?
6,900 miles per hour 24 hours = 165,600 miles
Step 3: 165,600 miles is the circumference (C) of a circle, and C = 2 r. Therefore,
r = 165,600 2 = 82,800 miles
and
r = 82,800 26,369 miles.
Step 4: 26,369 miles is the radius of a circle whose centre is the centre of the Earth.
To determine the satellite's altitude above the surface of the Earth, the radius of Earth (3,960.5 miles) must be
subtracted from the radius of the circle. Therefore, the altitude above the Earth is:
26,369 - 3,960.5 = 22,408.5 miles
A geostationary satellite orbits the earth around the equator with an orbit
time of 24 hours. This lets it maintain the same position above the earths
surface.
If the satellite is in a stable orbit then the force of gravity is exactly sufficient
to provide the acceleration towards the centre required for circular motion.
At this point
Mr
2
=GMm/r
2

Note that the force of gravity between the earth and the satellite is
proportional to 1/r
2

If we put a satellite into a sufficiently high orbit so that it rotates once in 24
hours then it is geostationary.
Calculating the orbit radius for a geostationary
satellite and the velocity using velocity
Since Mr
2
=GMm/r
2
and =2/86400 and m cancels then r
3
=GM/
2

Calculating the orbit radius and the velocity
using the expression for linear velocity
mv
2
/r = GMm/r
2
so v
2
=GM/r
We know v=distance/time = 2r/orbit time = 2r/86400
Thus (2r/86400)
2
=GM/r
r
3
=GM(86400)
2
/4
2

From either method above
Given that G=6.67 x 10
-11
m
3
kg
-1
s
-2
And M=5.97 x 10
24
kg
Calculates in both cases the orbit height of 42,164,000 meters from the
centre of the earth
Subtracting the earths radius then gives about 35,786,000 meters above sea
level
The linear speed of the satellite is then about 3070 ms
-1

What keeps satellites in orbit?
Centripetal force applied by gravity
m
s
= mass of the satellite
since F
c
=F
g
m
s
*v
2
/r= Gm
earth
m
s
/r
2
get rid of m
s
as a common factor
then v
2
/r= Gm
earth
/r
2
v=SQRT(Gm
earth
/r)
Notice that the mass of the satellite does not affect the velocity at which it moves.
Similarly we can find
g= G*m
earth
/r
2
T=sqrt(4
2
R
3
/GM
earth
)
Practical problem:
A weather satellite orbit the earth at a height of
100 km above the surface. Determine the velocity,
acceleration and orbital period of the satellite.
(M
earth
=5.98*10
24
kg, R
earth
=6.37*10
6
m)
V=SQRT(GM
earth
/R)
=7.85*10^3 m/s
a=GM
earth
/R
2
a=V
2
/R
= 9.53 m/s
T=sqrt(4
2
R
3
/GM
earth
)
= 5176 seconds = 1.44 hours
Calculate the radius of orbit (in SI units) for an earth
satellite in a geosynchronous orbit, where the
earth's rotational period is 86,164 seconds.
Given: T = 86,164 s
T
2
= 4 x
2
x r
3
/ GM

r
p
= [ T
2
x GM / (4 x
2
) ]1/3
r
p
= [ 86,1642 x 3.986x10
14
/ (4 x
2
) ]1/3
r
p
= 42,164,000 m
r
p
= 42,164 km

Elliptical orbit
A satellite, moving in an elliptical orbit, is 361 km above Earth's surface at its
farthest point and 161 km above at its closest point.
(a) Calculate the semimajor axis of the orbit.
(b) Calculate the eccentricity of the orbit.
Elliptical answer
(a)
semi major axis= (361+161)/2
semi major axis= 261 km

(b)
Aphelion-perihelion= eccentricity x 2 x average distance
261= e x 522
divide both side by 522 to then have about 0.5= eccentricity
An artificial earth satellite is in an elliptical orbit which brings it
to an altitude of 250 km at perigee and out to an altitude of 500
km at apogee. Calculate the velocity of the satellite at both
perigee and apogee.

Given: R
p
= (6,375 + 250) x 1,000 = 6,625,000 m
R
a
= (6,375 + 500) x 1,000 = 6,875,000 m
Velocity at perigee:
V
p
= SQRT[ 2 x GM x R
a
/ (R
p
x (R
a
+ R
p
)) ]
V
p
= SQRT[ 2 x 3.986x10
14
x 6,875,000 / (6,625,000 x (6,875,000 + 6,625,000)) ]
V
p
= 7,828 m/s
Velocity at apogee:
V
a
= SQRT[ 2 x GM x R
p
/ (R
a
x (R
a
+ R
p
)) ]
V
a
= SQRT[ 2 x 3.986x10
14
x 6,625,000 / (6,875,000 x (6,875,000 + 6,625,000)) ]
V
a
= 7,544 m/s

A satellite in earth orbit passes through its perigee
point at an altitude of 200 km above the earth's
surface and at a velocity of 7,850 m/s. Calculate the
apogee altitude of the satellite.
Given: Rp = (6,375 + 200) x 1,000 = 6,575,000 m
Vp = 7,850 m/s

Ra = Rp / [2 x GM / (Vp
2
x Rp) - 1]
Ra = 6,575,000 / [2 x 3.986x10
14
/ (7,8502 x 6,575,000) - 1]
Ra = 6,795,000 m

Altitude @ apogee = 6,795,000 / 1,000 - 6,375 = 420 km
Calculate the eccentricity of the orbit for the
satellite IN THE PREVIOUS PROBLEM
Given: Rp = 6,575,000 m
Vp = 7,850 m/s
e = Rp x Vp
2
/ GM - 1
e = 6,575,000 x 7,850
2
/ 3.986x10
14
- 1
e = 0.0165
A satellite in earth orbit has a semi-major axis of 6,700 km and an
eccentricity of 0.01.
Calculate the satellite's altitude at both perigee and apogee.
Given: r = 6,700 km and e = 0.01
Rp = r x (1 - e)
Rp = 6,700 x (1 - 0.01)
Rp = 6,633 km
Altitude @ perigee = 6,633 - 6,375 = 258 km

Ra = r x (1 + e)
Ra = 6,700 x (1 + 0.01)
Ra = 6,767 km
Altitude @ apogee = 6,767 - 6,375 = 392 km