CC302 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

RAZIF FITRI BIN RADZWAN 06DKA12F1097

NUR ALIAH BINTI NORSALEHIN 06DKA12F1096
NUR SYAZLEEN BINTI BAHRANI 06DKA12F1093
NORAMIRA BINTI MUHAMAD 06DKA12F1079
NURUL IZZATIE BINTI HASHIM 06DKA12F1076
Flexible pavement is any kind of pavement that is not constructed using
concrete
In Malaysia the pavement is commonly, constructed by using flexible
pavement
Pavements with very low flexural strength and are flexible in their structural
behaviour when under a load are called flexible pavements
The layers of this type of pavement reflect the deformation of the lower
layers that are beneath the top surface
Thus if the lower layer is deformed, the surface of the pavement will also be
deformed


reference: highway engineering C3010

SURFACE
The surface is the top layer in a pavement.
The pavement is divided into two layers that is Base course and wearing course
on the top.
a) Base Course
In resurfacing, this layer is usually known as a binder course.
It is the second layer before the wearing course.
The function is to spread the force from the surface.
b)Wearing Course
The wearing course is the top most layers in a pavement.
The functions of this layer are as follows:
-Provides smooth and dense ridding surface.
-Takes up wear and tear due to traffic.
-Provides water tight surface against filtration of surface water.
-Provides hard surface which can withstand the pressure exerted
by tyres of vehicles.



BASE
Base or road base is the main course to absorb force
from surface directly and spread the force to the
thickest layer.
This layer is normally made from broken stones which
may be bounded or unbounded.
It is used to help spread traffic load on large area of
sub-grade so that the stress intensity remains within
the capabilities of the sub-grade.
Thus undue deformation caused by the consolidation
of the sub-grade is prevented.
This layer is evaluated by plate bearing test or
stabilometer test.

SUB-BASE
Sub-base is one course that is constructed with quality
materials.
This is the lowest layer of pavement that is constructed
onto the sub-grade. The functions of sub-grade:
-Support the road base and spreads the force
to the sub-grade.
-Prepares the drainage using rough materials.
-Prepares a cover at any layer that is constructed.
-Bears the pressure from heavy vehicles so the
sub-grade will not crack.
-Prevent the sub-grade from traffic flow.


SUB-GRADE
Sub-grade is a layer of natural soil or filled soil, ready to receive the pavement
material over it.
Traffic load moving on the surface of the road is ultimately transferred to the
sub-grade through intermediate layer of sub-base, base and surface layer.
For the success full construction of the road, it is necessary that the soil sub-
grade should never be over stressed.
Stress intensity on the sub-grade should not be of the magnitude that may
cause excessive deformation in the sub-grade.
It is this reason that the strength properties of the soil sub-grade should be
evaluated.
The pavement design assumes sub-grade strength as the basis for designing
the pavement.
If strength properties of the sub-grade are inferior to the expected ones, it is
given suitable treatment to impart improvement in its performance.
There are a number of tests which can be used to measure strength properties
of the soil sub-grade.
All these tests are empirical and are useful in their correlation in the design.
Following are some of the standard tests, used to evaluate the strength
properties of the soil.
C.B.R test
Plate bearing test
Triaxial compression test


Crusher run consisted of a fraction of which are broken
down in two stages to get good grades and stability.
Advantages of crusher run material is required density can
be obtained quickly.
Materials easily placed,level and material costs are lower.
Disadvantages is the connection with
the separation that occurs between
coarse and fine aggregates during
transportation from the quarry to
the construction site.
















Sand is often used as a sub base for other paving material
such as brick and paver blocks.
Depending on how the paving material is laid in the sand
and the sub base used, sand surfaces can be
porous or impervious.
There are problems using
sand as a surface material
as it can generate dust and
has a tendency to become
rutted when used extensively
by heavy vehicles in wet
weather.

Laterites are soil types rich in iron aluminium, formed in hot and
wet tropical areas. Nearly all laterites are rusty-red because of iron
oxides. They develop by intensive and long-lasting weathering of
the underlying parent rock. Tropical weathering (laterization) is a
prolonged process of chemical weathering which produces a wide
variety in the thickness, grade, chemistry and ore mineralogy of the
resulting soils.

Since the mid-1970s trial sections of bituminous-surfaced low-
volume roads have used laterite in place of stone as a base course.

No bonding between the aggregate.
Just depends on its natural interlocking between aggregate.
Has two layers:
First layer : coarse aggregate is spread 75-100mm
compacted.
Second layer : coarse aggregate is spread thick 25-50mm
compacted.



Method of construction materials is similar to the dry
macadam with the addition of water splash after layer
of fine gross spread / compacted.
This type of macadam road closely resembles those
so widely used in the early days of road building.
Usually produced by mixing water between 2-5% on
aggregate in the plant and brought to
the site to spread.
Cover no more than 200mm
thick compacted.

Is a crushed stone or crushed slag base or wearing surface
in which the fragments are bound together by bituminous
material.
The aggregate layer is compacted,and bituminous material
is applied to the surface of the layer.
Bituminous material then penetrates into the voids of the
compacted layer and serves to bind the fragments together.
Graded aggregate + bitumen 3-4%
38% aggregate passing 3.18mm,
65% course aggregate.
High viscosity bitumen,
penetration grade 80/100.
Soil stabilization refers to the
process of changing soil properties
to improve strength and durability.
There are many techniques for soil
stabilization, including
compaction, dewatering and by
adding material to the soil. This
summary will focus on mechanical
and chemical stabilization based
adding IRC materials. Mechanical
stabilization improves soil
properties by mixing other soil
materials with the target soil to
change the gradation and therefore
change the engineering properties.
After the sub-base has been prepared with list materials , it will be
placed and constructed into two layers if the thickness is more then
150mm
Every layer will be compacted according to the plan
Sub-base layer must be compacted carefully with compactor
machine
Compactors with rubber roller can compact 120mm layer in 12 times
Compacting should start from the side of the road then slowly
towards the middle of the road in horizontal way
In super-elevated bends compaction machine will start at the lowest
part and slowly towards the higher level
The finished part not be more than 20mm from the plan

reference: highway engineering C3010
Before road base is constructed ,sub-grade surface and sub-base must
be formed perfectly and compacted enough
The lowest layer and sub-base must be prepared at least distance of
200m from the base construction
The road base in Malaysia is commonly constructed with a material
known as crusher run
This material is place and compacted to on the surface of the road
The road base must be constructed in two layers of same thickness
Each layer should not exceed 150mm

reference: highway engineering C3010

Compaction Equipment

There are three basic pieces of equipment
available for HMA compaction:
Paver screed
Steel wheeled roller
Pneumatic tire roller



C.B.R test
The primary purpose of the California Bearing Ratio test is to determine
the bearing capacity and the mechanical strength of road sub-bases and
Sub-grades. In this test, a plunger
of a standard area is pushed into
the soil at a fixed rate of
penetration, and the force required
to maintain that force is measured.
The CBR value is then defined as the
ratio of the measured force to that
required for similar penetration into
a standard sample of crushed
California limestone rock

Plate bearing test
- It measures settlement under load on soils, fill and
sub-base to determine whether the ground has
sufficient bearing capacity.
- This enables you to get reading such as equivalent
CBR (California Bearing Ratio) on materials that are
too
large for a standard
CBR tests.
Triaxial compression test.
- to determine basic elastic constants (Youngs
Modulus, E, and Poissons ratio, ). In view of the
variability of rock properties, when adequate samples
are available,
repeat testing may be merited
to determine average values.
If triaxial testing is performed
at several confining pressures,
and preferably if unconfined
compression and tensile test
data are available, a
representative failure locus
can be constructed.

a) Prime cover
Many pavements particularly lower traffic
pavements are constructed with gravel or granular
material.
Often roads have been constructed as gravel roads
and an upgrade is required.
If Emulsions are applied directly to granular
pavements, especially high binder content chip seal
emulsions or very quick set slurry emulsions they
can fail to wet the surface of the pavement creating
poor adhesion.

The granular base layer can be prepared with a
prime coat if necessary.
A prime coat is a sprayed application of a cutback
or emulsion asphalt applied to the surface sub-
grade or base layers in order to (Asphalt Institute,
2001)
Fill the surface voids and protect the sub-base
from weather.
Stabilize the fines and preserve the sub-base
material.
Promote bonding to the subsequent pavement
layers.
The function of a prime cover is:

Coat and bond any loose material
Harden or toughen the surface
Waterproof the base during construction
Plug capillary voids
Provide adhesion between the base and the next
course.

b) Strip cover

A tack coat is a thin bituminous liquid asphalt,
emulsion or cutback layer applied between HMA
pavement lifts to promote bonding. Adequate bonding
between construction lifts and especially between the
existing road surface and an overlay is critical in order
for the completed pavement structure to behave as a
single unit and provide adequate strength. If adjacent
layers do not bond to one another they essentially
behave as multiple independent thin layers.
Good tack coat coverage Poor tack coat coverage.
Poor tack coat (shown in the left half of the photo) vs. a good
tack coat (shown in the right half of the photo).
Notice the streaky coverage of the poor tack coat and the
near complete coverage of the good tack coat.
Asphaltic concrete
Asphalt concrete is a composite material
commonly used in construction projects
such road surfaces, parking lots, and
airports. Asphalt concrete consists of
asphalt (used as a binder) mixed with
mineral aggregate and then laid down in
layers and compacted. Asphalt concrete
was refined and enhanced to its current
state by Belgian inventor and U.S.
immigrant Edward de Smedt.

It is
increasingly being used as the core of
embankments damn.
Bituminous macadam
Cold fine asphalt
Cold asphalt concrete is produced by
emulsifying the asphalt in water with
(essentially) soap prior to mixing with the
aggregate. While in its emulsified state the
asphalt is less viscous and the mixture is easy to
work and compact. The emulsion will break
after enough water evaporates and the cold mix
will, ideally, take on the properties of cold
HMAC. Cold mix is commonly used as a
patching material and on lesser trafficked
service roads
Constructed with bitumen material:
a. concrete asphalt.
b. macadam bitumen.

Constructed should be free from dust and waterproof.

To construct the surface layer, the base course must be prepared first.

To pour the prime coat, the temperature must be according to the
specifications stipulated.

reference: highway engineering C3010

A hard area the side of a main, road especially a
motorway, where a driver can stop if there is a
serious problem.
Shoulder should be strong enough to resist any types
of vehicle.
Maintain and thickness should
be as per the specification.
Made with grass, crusher run,
land or pavement.

Video :
shazleen\Prime Coat in Omak - YouTube.lnk

shazleen\Apply tack coat.AVI - YouTube.FLV

shazleen\Flexible (Asphalt) Pavement in
Hawari Shar district in Sulaimani -
YouTube.FLV




shazleen\prime coat - YouTube.FLV

shazleen\Tack Coat - YouTube.FLV