Challenge the future

Delft
University of
Technology
M.E. Donselaar
Linear clastic coast deposits

2
Sedimentary environments
Continental: fluvial (braided, meandering)
aeolian
lacustrine
Coastal: deltas
linear (clastic, carbonate)
Marine: shelf
deep marine sands
pelagic
3
Outline
Introduction
Wave- and tidal processes
Sedimentation on a barrier island coast
Effects of sea level fluctuation
4
Linear clastic coasts: Occurrence
Sand-rich coasts
Surrounded by clay-rich
environments
Bordering a coastal plain
Low relief, low gradient
5
5
Linear coastal types
Mainland coast: sandy coast
bordered by coastal lowland
Barrier island coast: coastal
lowland flooded and converted to
lagoon (relative sea level rise)
http://www.loreedelaforet.com/catalog.0.html
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Wave processes
Waves generated by wind
Shallow water: friction between waves and bottom may
lead to bed load transport
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Parameters wave action - 1
Wave length (L): distance
between two successive wave
crests
Wave height (H): distance
between wave crest and trough
Wave period (T): time
difference of two successive
wave crests passing a fixed
point
Wave speed (V): V=L/T
Press & Siever (1998)
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Parameters wave action - 2
Water depth (D):
Deep water if L< 0.5D
Shallow water if L>0.05D
Intermediate water depths:
0.5D<L<0.05D
Wave base: D=0.5L
Press & Siever (1998)
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Wave action - 1
Deep water: orbital movement of water particles: shape
remains circular with increasing depth
Press & Siever (1998)
10
Wave action - 2
Waves in shallow water: shape of orbital movement
changes to elliptic towards bottom. Horizontal sediment
movement along bottom
Press & Siever (1998)
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Animations
http://www.coastal.udel.edu/faculty/rad/linearplot.html

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Breaking waves
Waves break if H = D
Waves break because the
wave-train front is in shallower
water than back, hence friction
is higher and movement slower
Photos: Duncan Heron - Duke Univ.
http://www.geo.duke.edu/geo41/oce.htm
http://video.google.nl/videoplay?docid=-2469174372896818874&q=breaking+waves
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Wave action & sediment transport
Waves approach the coast at an angle: disintegration in
vectors perpendicular and parallel to the coast
Press & Siever (1998)
14
Longshore sediment transport
Waves approach beach at an
angle (swash)
Backwash: return flow
perpendicular to beach (gravity)
Resultant sand particle
movement: zig-zag along the
coast
Resultant water movement:
longshore current in shallow
water parallel to shoreline
Press & Siever (1998)
15
Coastal links
http://www.coastal.udel.edu/faculty/rad/index.html

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Outline
Wave- and tidal processes
Sedimentation on a barrier island coast
Effects of sea level fluctuation
17
Tide-producing forces
Gravitational attraction of Sun and Moon on ocean water
masses
Gravitational attraction: F
g
= G*(m
1
*m
2
/r
2
)
Earth Moon distance: 3.84*10
5
km
Earth Sun distance: 149.6010
6
km
Because of shorter distance the moon is dominant factor in
creating tides on Earth

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Origin of tides - 1
Press & Siever (1998)
Attraction by gravity of the
moon: tidal bulges

Polar view
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Diurnal inequality of tides
Unequal tides at mid-latitude due to the Moons declination
Alternating larger (Y) and smaller high tide (X)
The Open University (1989)
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Solar-induced tides
Solar tide-producing force has lower magnitude (0.46) than
that of Moon
Again, two tidal bulges formed
As Earth rotates on its axis: tidal bulges change position
Semi-diurnal solar tide (12 h)
21
Interaction solar lunar tides
Spring tide:
(a) Position of Moon, Earth and
Sun line up. Tide-producing forces
add up and hence are stronger

Neap tide:
(b) Position Moon in quadrature
with line Earth-Sun. Weak tide-
producing forces

http://www.sfgate.com/getoutside
/1996/jun/tides.html
Press & Siever (1998)
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Tidal cycles with direct impact on
sedimentation pattern

Daily flood & ebb cycles (24 h 50)
Diurnal variation (24 h 50)
Neap spring cycles (14.7 days)
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Tides and sedimentation
Tides rule transport and deposition of sediment
Tides operate on daily basis
Cyclic changes in tidal currents reflected in sedimentary
structures
Unique diagnostic criteria for tidally produced sedimentary
structures
24
Ideal symmetrical semi-daily tidal cycle
Nio & Yang (1989)
25
Neap spring tidal cycles with diurnal
inequality
Nio & Yang (1989)
26
Example of spring neap cyclicity
Scheldt estuary tidal channel
spring neap
27
Tidal bundle sequence
Yang & Nio (1989)
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Tidal links
http://www.cofc.edu/CGOInquiry/tides.htm
http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/EarthSC202Notes/TIDES.HTM
http://topex-www.jpl.nasa.gov/science/invest-ray.html
29
Linear clastic coasts: Coastal types
Mainland coast:
Sandy coast directly adjacent to coastal plain, no lagoon
Barrier island coast:
Sandy coast separated from coastal plain by a lagoon,
oriented parallel to the barrier island
Estuarine coast:
Indentation in coast, oriented perpendicular to coastal trend
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Example barrier island coast: Georgia, USA
31
Example estuarine coast
Thames estuary, England
London
32
Subdivision coast
Backshore: dune base to mean high water line (MHW)
Foreshore: MHW to mean low water line (MLW)
Shoreface: MLW to wave base
Offshore: wave base to shelf edge
Nichols (1999)
33
Barrier island coast: Sub-environments
34
Tides
Micro-tidal: tidal range 0 - 2 m
Meso-tidal: tidal range 2 - 4 m
Macro-tidal: tidal range > 4m
35
Tidal pumping
flood tide
ebb tide
36
Effects of tidal pumping
Convergence of tidal currents in narrow tidal channel:
Increase current speed, erosion of channel floor
Flow expansion from tidal channel lagoon: decrease of
current speed, deposition of flood-tidal delta
Flow expansion from tidal channel sea: decrease of
current speed, deposition of ebb-tidal delta
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GJ5J4OxYnrk

37
Tidal deltas
Ebb-tidal delta Price Inlet, S. Carolina, USA
Flood-tidal delta
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Washover
Formed during landward
directed storms
Waves overtop the beach
Waves erode sand from the
beach front and transport this
to the lagoon
Storm washover only on low-
lying parts of the barrier island
washover
fans
39
Relation between shape & tidal range in
a barrier island coast
A: Micro-tidal range: Long barrier
islands separated by shallow tidal
inlets
B: Meso-tidal range: Short barrier
islands separated by deep tidal
inlets
C: Macro-tidal range: Barrier
islands not formed; instead the
sediment is arranged in shoals
oriented normal to the coast
40
Outline
Wave- and tidal processes
Sedimentation on a barrier island coast
Effects of sea level fluctuation
41
Coastal development in time - 1
Parameters
Sediment supply to the coast
Relative sea level movement:
- eustatic component
- tectonic component
42
Coastal development in time - 2
Scenarios
Scenario 1:
Sediment supply < relative sea level rise
Balance: eventually the coast will drown / retreat landward
Scenario 2:
Sediment supply > relative sea level rise
Balance: eventually the coast will build up and seaward
43
Scenario 1: Sediment supply < relative
sea level rise
Effects:
- Lower topography
- Higher washover activity
- Shoreface erosion
- Flood-tidal delta expansion
44
44
Landward migration 1: Processes
Shoreface erosion
Storm overwash
Expansion of flood tidal deltas
45
Landward migration - 2
Net effect of erosive processes:
Landward displacement of barrier
coastal profile (A)

Net effect of erosive process in
combination with relative sea level
rise:
Landward and upward displacement
of barrier coastal profile, and
Erosion of the upper part of the
barrier deposits (B)
46
Landward migration - 3
Preserved geometry
Sustained landward and upward
translation of coastal profile +
Partial erosion of barrier top
Sheet geometry with local step-ups
(A, positions 3-5) in periods of
interrupted landward migration
Swift (1975)
47
Scenario 1
Sediment supply < relative sea level rise
Resulting coastal development:
- depositional transgression
Geometry of the coastal deposit: sheet sand
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Sea level rise
Hypothetical coastal development
Donselaar (1996)
49
Landward migration - 4
Transgressive sequence
Holocene sequence is partly
preserved
Top the barrier island is eroded
by subsequent shoreface
erosion
Lagoonal and back barrier
deposits (including washover
and flood-tidal deltas) have the
highest preservation potential
ENVIRONMENT AGE
Modern
Holocene
Pleistocene
Cretaceous
Inner shelf
Back barrier
Lagoon - salt marsh
Outwash
Back barrier
Marine
0-5 m
0-3 m
0-3 m
50
Scenario 2: Sediment supply > relative sea
level rise (or fall)
Coast expands seaward
Depositional regression
51
Scenario 2
Example regressive coast
Bernhard et al. (1962)
52
Regressive sequence
Nichols (1999)
53
Depositional regression:
Example Point Lookout Ss
coarsening &
thickening up
sequence
Lower shoreface
Barrier island
54
Depositional regression
Shallow-marine:
Bioturbated mudstone with marine
trace fossil assemblage
Shoreface:
Thin, very fine-grained, parallel
laminated sandstone beds alternating
with bioturbated mudstone
Barrier island coast:
Thick, non-bioturbated medium-
grained, cross-bedded sandstone
beds
15 m
55
Example transgressive - regressive
cycles
56
Sedimentary structures
Estuarine sequence
Flood-tidal delta sediment
Washover fan

57
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Estuarine morphology
Tidal channels: sub-tidal
Tidal flats: inter-tidal to
supra-tidal
Lateral migration of tidal
channels tidal flats
59
Lithology and structures
Tidal channels:
Sand
Large dunes (bi-directional)
Inter-tidal flats:
Sand silt
Large dunes (bi-directional)
Supra-tidal flats:
Silt clay
Parallel laminated
Bioturbated
Vegetated

60
Sub-tidal and inter-tidal dunes
Dunes migrate in dominant
flow direction
61
Inter-tidal to supra-tidal
Ripple-laminated
inter-tidal channel
Inclined lamination of
tidal point bar
Parallel-laminated,
vegetated supra-tidal flat
62
Estuarine sequences
Lateral migration of tidal channels onto adjacent mudflats:
Coarsening upward sequence
Lateral migration of channels and shoals within the estuary:
Fining upward sequence

63
Migration channels onto flats - 1
0 150 API
4030
4020
4010
4000
Active tidal channel
Sub-tidal mudflat
64
Migration channels onto flats - 2
0 150 API
SB
2530
2520
2510
2500
Sub-tidal mudflat
Active tidal channel
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Channel shoal sequence
tidal channel fill
tidal shoal
66
Flood-tidal deltas
Radial expansion into lagoon
Sand avalanches down the delta front
Wedge-shape in longitudinal cross section

http://nicholas.duke.edu/eos/geo41/oce.htm
67
Flood-tidal delta - 1
12 m
4 m
lagoonal mudstone
lagoonal mudstone
ftd
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Flood-tidal delta - 2
prodelta
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Washover fan
Upper flow regime waning to lower flow regime:
Upward change from:
Parallel laminated sand (upper flow) to
In-phase ripple lamination (lower flow)
http://www.oceanscience.net/inletsonline/method/photo/photo_washover.jpg
70
Washover fan
parallel lamination
(upper flow regime)
in-phase ripples
(lower flow regime)