Encoding and Transmission of

Data

1
Overview
Analog and Digital Signals
Vocabulary
Analog Signals
Digital Signals
Encoding and Modulation
Digital to Digital Conversion
Analog to Digital Conversion
Digital To Analog Conversion
Analog to Analog Conversion
2
Analog and Digital Signals
Signal - an electromagnetic wave that
transfers information
Analog Signal - Continuous set of data
Real Numbers
Digital Signals - Discrete set of data
Integer Numbers
Often binary (1 or 0 only)
CSIS 625
3
Analog Signal
Digital Signal
Periodic vs. A periodic Signals
Periodic Signal
A signal that completes a pattern in a
measureable time frame
Aperiodic Signal
A signal that does not exhibit a pattern
All aperiodic signals can be shown to be a
combination of periodic signals

CSIS 625
4
Periodic Signal
APeriodic Signal
Signal definitions
Amplitude - The height of a signal.
Measured in Volts, Amps, Watts, etc.
Period - The amount of time to complete one
cycle
Frequency - The number of periods per
second. Measured in Hertz (Hz)
CSIS 625
5
Amplitude
Period
Phase
The position of a sine wave relative to time
zero. Measured in degrees.
CSIS 625
6
0 Degrees 90 Degrees
1/4 Cycle
180 Degrees
1/2 Cycle
270 Degrees
3/4 Cycle
Bandwidth
Bandwidth - A range of frequencies
Analog - measured in Hz.
Bandwidth = High-Freq Low-Freq
Spectrum - synonym - used only in analog
measurements.
Bandwidth in digital realm - often used to
refer to bits-per-second
CSIS 625
7
Bit Rate
Most digital signals are aperiodic
Period and frequency are not appropriate to
describe digital signals
Bit Interval - time to send one bit
Bit rate - number of bits send in a second.
Measured in bits per second
bps - Bits Per Second
Do NOT use Hz when you mean bps or vice-
versa
CSIS 625
8
Decomposing a digital signal
A digital signal can be decomposed into an
infinite number of simple sine waves
It is not practical or necessary to send all of
these components
Significant Bandwidth - Those frequencies
necessary to recreate a digital bit pattern
Significant Bandwidth is related to bit rate
Greater bit rate = Greater significant bandwidth
CSIS 625
9
Medium Bandwidth and Significant
Bandwidth
All transmission mediums have limited
bandwidth
The significant bandwidth of a digital bit rate
must fit within the limited bandwidth of the
medium that carries it.
CSIS 625
10
Encoding
Information must often be encoded before
being sent over a medium
Four basic types of encoding
Digital to Digital
Analog to Digital
Digital to Analog
Analog to Analog
Encoding schemes may be stacked
Voice to digital data to radio waves
CSIS 625
11
Digital to Digital Encoding
Using a digital signal to represent digital data
Binary data is translated to different voltage,
current, or light pulses that can be
transported over the medium.
Types
Unipolar - uses 1 signal level
Polar - uses 2 signal levels
Bipolar - uses 2 signal levels and 0
CSIS 625
12
Digital signal encoding formats
CSIS 625
13
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
Unipolar
NRZL
NRZI
RZ
Manchester
Differential
Manchester
Bipolar-AMI
Pseudoternary
Unipolar Encoding
Simplest scheme
Uses two signal levels
1s are encoded with signal present
0s are encoded by absence of a signal
(Sometimes inverse of the above)
Long run of 0s or 1s cant be handled by some
mediums
CSIS 625
14
Unipolar encoding - synchronization
When a signal isnt varying, receiver cant
determine beginning and ending of each bit
Solutions:
A separate line with a clock signal
Asynchronzous Serial lines wrap each byte with
start and stop bit
Scrambling of data to ensure enough transitions
Use of additional coding schemes like 8b10b
CSIS 625
15
Polar Encoding
Uses a positive and a negative signal
but not a zero level
Several types of Polar encoding
NRZ - Non-Return to Zero
RZ - Return to Zero
Biphase
CSIS 625
16
Non-Return to Zero - Level
NRZL - Non-Return to Zero - Level
Simple - exactly like Polar, except
1s are encoded with positive signal
0s are encoded with negative signal
(Sometimes inverse of the above)
Same synchronization problems and solutions
CSIS 625
17
Non-Return to Zero - Invert on Ones
NRZI - Non-Return to Zero - Invert on Ones
A change in voltage level indicates a 1
No change in voltage level indicates a 0
Synchronization less of a problem
Every 1 bit causes a signal change
A string of 0s still causes problems
Same synchronization solutions
CSIS 625
18
Return to Zero
RZ - Return to Zero
Not strictly polar - uses 0 in addition to
positive and negative
Works like NRZL, except it goes to zero
between each bit.
Transition to/from zero provides for
synchronization
Because there are more transisitions (2 per bit
time) it has a higher significant bandwidth
than NRZ
CSIS 625
19
Manchester Coding
A biphase mechanism
Inversion of signal in middle of each bit
low to high transition is 1
high to low transition is 0
Mid-bit inversion provides for both data and
synchronization information
May have transition between bits so that right
transition can be made in middle of a bit
CSIS 625
20
Differential Manchester
A biphase mechanism
Always has a mid-bit inversion to provide
timing information
Inversion at beginning of bit time provides
data
Presence of inversion means 0
No inversion means 1
CSIS 625
21
Bipolar AMI
Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion
Mark comes from old telegraphy - means 1
Encoding
0 = lack of signal (0)
1 = positive or negative values alternating for
successive ones
CSIS 625
22
Pseudo ternary
Same as Bipolar AMI, but inverts 1s and 0s
Encoding
0 = positive or negative values alternating for
successive zeros
1 = lack of signal (0)
CSIS 625
23
B8ZS
Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution
A modification of Bipolar AMI to solve the
synchronization problem that occurs when a
long string of 0s occurs
Substitutes 8 consecutive 0s with fixed pattern
that contains 2 AMI violations
CSIS 625
24
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Binary-AMI
B8ZS
V = Bipolar AMI Violation
V V
HDB3
High Density Bipolar - 3 Zeros
Similar to B8ZS
Substitutes 4 zeros with a pattern that
contains 1 AMI violation

CSIS 625
25
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Binary-AMI
HDB3
V = Bipolar AMI Violation
V V V
Numberof Bipolar pulses (ones)
Polarity of Since Last Substitution
Preceding Pulse Odd Even
- 000- +00+
+ 000+ -00-
Analog to Digital Encoding
Digitizing - analog to digital conversion
Approximate analog information with a digital
signal
Reduces infinite number of analog values to a
finite number of digital values.
Codec - Coder-Decoder
Analog to digital converter
CSIS 625
26
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
First step to analog to digital encoding
Sample analog amplitude information at equal
intervals
PAM alone not useful as measurements are
still analog values
CSIS 625
27
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Modifies PAM output to create completely
digital signal
PCM quantizes Take the samples from PAM
and assigns digital values to each
measurement.
Nyquist theorem - To ensure accurate
reproduction of a signal, the sample rate must
be twice the highest frequency of the original
signal
CSIS 625
28
PCM & Telephony
Telephony system uses 8 bits (256 levels)
when quantizing
A non-linear set of quantizing levels is used so
that quiet sounds are accurately reproduced
300-3300Hz is voice range.
8kHz sample rate is used to cover this range
8kHz * 8 bits/sample = 64,000 bps
CSIS 625
29
DM - Delta Modulation
Analog data is approximated using a staircase
function that moves up or down by one level
each sampling time.
Digital data is a stream of 1s and 0s that
specify the up and down steps.
Can be implemented using simple
components.
Not as good quality as PCM
Quantizing noise when slope changes slowly
Slope overload noise when slope changes fast
CSIS 625
30
Digital to Analog Conversion
ASK - Amplitude Shift Keying
FSK - Frequency Shift Keying
PSK - Phase Shift Keying
QAM - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
combination of ASK & PSK
CSIS 625
31
Bit rate vs. Baud Rate & Carrier Signal
Bit rate is Bits per Second
Baud Rate is number of signal units per
second
Baud rate is less than or equal bit rate
Dont mix them up!
Carrier Signal
high frequency signal that is modified to carry
digital signal
CSIS 625
32
ASK - Amplitude Shift Keying
Amplitude of signal varied for 1 or 0
Frequency and phase remain constant
Very susceptible to noise
On-Off-Keying - signal and no-signal
Example:
CSIS 625
33
1 BIT
0
1 BIT
1
1 BIT
0
1 BIT
1
FSK- Frequency Shift Keying
Frequency of the carrier signal is varied to
represent a 1or 0.
Avoids many of the noise problems of
Amplitude Shift keying
Example:
CSIS 625
34
1 BIT
0
1 BIT
1
1 BIT
0
1 BIT
1
PSK - Phase Shift Keying
The phase of the carrier signal is varied to
represent a 1 or 0.
Avoids noise problems of ASK
Uses less bandwidth than FSK
Example:
CSIS 625
35
1 BIT
0
1 BIT
1
1 BIT
0
1 BIT
1
QPSK - Quadrature PSK
A type of PSK that uses 90 shifts instead of
180 shifts.
Allows for 2 bits per baud to be encoded.
CSIS 625
36
DPSK - Differential PSK
The bit pattern defines the phase change,
instead of the current phase
V.22bis standard at 1200 bps uses:
00 90 Degree phase change
01 0 Degree phase change
10 180 Degree phase change
11 270 Degree phase change
CSIS 625
37
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
The phase and amplitude of the carrier signal
is varied to give several bits per baud
Number of different phases is greater than
number of amplitudes
Example: 2 amplitudes & 4 phases
CSIS 625
38
3 BITS
000
3 BITS
010
3 BITS
001
3 BITS
111
Trellis Coded Modulation
Uses QAM, but includes extra data
Trellis coding is a specific type of convolutional
encoding
Viterbi Decoder - a specific algorithm for
decoding convolutionally encoded data.
Convolutional codes add redundancy to the
data, which makes it more resistant to noise.
Resistance to noise is more important as data
rates get higher.
CSIS 625
39
Constellation diagrams
Constellation diagram shows relationship
between amplitude and phase of different
signal levels
polar diagram,
amplitude shown as distance from center
phase shown as degrees around circle
CSIS 625
40
ASK
1 0
PSK
1 0
8-QAM
001
16-QAM
000 100 101
011
010
110
111
Bandwidth required
Amplitude Shift Keying
bandwidth = baud rate * (1 + noise factor)
noise factor is 0 in ideal world
Frequency Shift Keying
bandwidth = (fc1 - fc0) + baud rate
Phase Shift Keying & QAM
bandwidth = baud rate * (1 + noise factor)
but bit rate is higher because more than one bit
per baud
CSIS 625
41
Analog to Analog Encoding
AM - Amplitude Modulation
The amplitude of the carrier is modified
Bandwidth = 2x Bandwidth of modulating signal
FM- Frequency Modulation
The frequency of the carrier is modified
Bandwidth = 10x Bandwidth of modulation signal
CSIS 625
42
Analog to Analog Encoding
Phase Modulation
The phase of the carrier is modified
Phase Modulation and FM are a special case
of Angle modulation
Observing the signal, it is impossible to tell apart
FM and phase modulation
CSIS 625
43
Parallel/Serial Transmission of
Data
Transmission of Digital Data
Serial & Parallel transmission
Serial interfaces - DTE & DCE - Modems
CSIS 625
44
Parallel Transmission of Data
Send several bits of data at the same time,
each one over a separate media link.
Typically 8 bits of data sent over 8 wires
Examples: Printer cables, SCSI, PCI bus
Allows faster transmission of data, but at the
cost of multiple wires, multiple transmitters,
and multiple receivers
Must keep all bits in sync
Typically uses a separate clock line
CSIS 625
45
Serial Transmission of Data
Sends all bits from node to node over a single
media link.
Bits are sent one after another - or serially
May or may not have additional media links
for clock, frame, or flow control.
Need some method of keeping track of when
a byte starts and ends.
Asynchronous or Synchronous
CSIS 625
46
Serial - Asynchronous
transmission
Bits are grouped together into characters
Start and stop bits frame the data bits
A start bit is sent first
Followed by the data bits
Followed by a stop bit or bits
Variable number of idle bits between
characters
CSIS 625
47
Serial - Asynchronous
transmission
At best - 80% efficient
8 data bits
1 start bit
1 stop bit
Allows for about a lot of timing error
Example:
CSIS 625
48
Start Data Data Data Data Data Data Data Data Stop Start Data Data Data Data Data Data Data Data Stop
Serial - Synchronous transmission
Each byte of data is sent with no extra gaps
between bytes.
Data is grouped into frames
Frame contains
Between frames, special idle patterns used
Much less overhead that asynchronous
Can achieve faster bit rates than asynchronous
Requires synchronization method
CSIS 625
49
Data transparency on serial links
Data transparency - the ability of a link to send
any data pattern
Bit stuffing - insertion of extra bits to change a
flag pattern so that data transparency is
achieved
Byte stuffing - insertion of extra bytes to
change a flag pattern so that data
transparency is achieved
Flag character - special bit pattern to show
start or end of a frame
CSIS 625
50
Serial - Synchronous transmission
Bit-oriented synchronous transmission
Uses a special bit pattern at the start and end of
the frame (flag character)
Data may be any number of bits
Uses bit stuffing to replace flag pattern in data
Bit stuffing is slightly more efficient than byte
stuffing
Easier to implement in hardware
CSIS 625
51
Serial - Synchronous transmission
Character oriented synchronous transmission
Uses a special byte at the start and end of the
frame
Data must be an even number of 8-bit bytes
Uses byte stuffing to replace flag byte in data
Byte stuffing makes this slightly less efficient
Easier to implement in software
CSIS 625
52
DTE-DCE interface
DTE - Data Terminal Equipment
A device that is a source or destination for binary
digital data
DCE - Data Circuit-terminating Equipment
A device that interfaces between a DTE and a
network
Modem is classic DCE example
Lots of standards specify DTE to DCE interface
More standards for DCE to DCE interface
CSIS 625
53
RS-232 Interface
Specifies the mechanical, electrical &
functional characteristics of DTE-DCE interface
EIA-232 is now the official name
Tailored to Computer to modem interface
Limited to about 20 Kbps
Mechanical
less than 50 feet long cable
DB-25 connector original standard
DB-9 connector now standardized
CSIS 625
54
RS-232 Interface
Electrical - Uses NRZL
0 = +3 to +15 volts
1 = -3 to -15 volts
3 pins are all that are necessary
Receive Data
Transmit Data
Ground
Other pins are often ignored
Null modem - a device that flips receive and
transmit lines
CSIS 625
55
Other serial interfaces
RS-449 - uses 37 pin connector
RS-423 - uses 2-6 volt levels
40 feet - 100 Kbps
4000 feet - 1 Kbps
RS-422 - 2-6 Volt balanced transmission
40 feet - 10 Mbps
4000 feet - 1 Kbps
CSIS 625
56
Balanced transmission
Uses two wires with a positive or negative
voltage put on the line
Compared to unbalanced which using two
wires, one as ground and the other as signal.
Better noise resistance than unbalanced
CSIS 625
57