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INTRODUCTION
The Periodic table arises from the periodic patterns in the
electron configurations of the elements. Elemen in the
same column contain the same number of electrons in their
outer-shell orbitals, or valence orbitals.
Example
O([He]2s22p4 and S([Ne]3s23p4) are both members of
group 6A; the similarities in the occupancies of their
valence s and p orbitals leads to similarities in their
properties.
In this chapter, then, we will gain a deeper understanding
of how the properties of elemen change as we move
across a row or down a column of the periodic table.

3.1.Electron Shells and the Sizes of Atoms

Electron Shells in Atoms
As we move down a column of the periodic table, we change the
principal quantum number, n, of the valence orbitals of the atoms
He 1s2
Ne 1s22s22p6
Ar 1s22s22p63s23p6

Atomic Sizes
The atoms do not have boundaries that fix their sizes. Nevertheless, scientiests
have used a number of means to estimate the radius of an atom, which is called
the atomic radius.
If we examine the Peridic Table of atomic radii, we observe some interesting
trends in data:
1. Within each column (group) the atomic radius tends to increase as we
proceed from top to bottom.
2. Within each row (period) the atomic radius tends to decrease as we move from
left to right.

3.2. Ionization Energy

The ionization energy of an atom or ion is the minimum
energy required to remove an electron from the ground
state of the isolated gaseous atom or ion.
The first ionization energy, I1, is the energy needed to
remove the first electron from a neutral atom.
Na(g) Na+(g) + e The second ionization energy, I2, is the energy needed
to remove the second electron, and so forth, for
successive removals of additional electrons
Na+(g) Na+2(g) + e I1<I2<I3 , and so forth

Periodic Trends in Ionization Energies

1.

2.

3.

Within each row, I1 generally increasing atomic

number. The alkali metals show the lowest ionization
energy in each row, and the noble gases the highest.
Within each group, the ionization energy generally
decreases with increasing atomic number. The
ionization energy He> Ne>Ar >Kr >Xe
The representative elements show a larger range of
values of I1 than do the transition metal elements.
Generally, the ionization energies of the transition
elements increase slowly as we proceed from left to
right I a period

3.3.Electron Affinities

Most atoms can gain electrons to form negatively charged ions. The energy change
that occurs when an electron is added to a gaseous atom is called the electron
affinity because it measures the attraction, or affinity, of the atom for the added
electron
Cl(g) + e- Cl-(g) E = -349 kJ/mol
[Ne]3s23p5 [Ne]3s23p6
It is important to understand the differences between ionization energy and electron
affinity, ionization energy measures the ease with which an atom loses an electron
whereas the electron affinity measures the ease with which an atom gains an electron.
The greater the attraction between a given atom and an added electron, the more
negative the atoms electron affinity will be.
The elctron affinity of Cl is the most negative of all the elements. For some elements,
such as the noble gases, the electron affinity has a positive value, meaning that the
anion is higher in energy than are the separated atom and electron
Ar(g) + e- Ar- E >0
Because E >0, the Ar- ion is not stable and will not form
The electron affinity generally becomes increasingly negative as we proceed in each
row toward the halogens

3.4.Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloid

Characteristic Properties of
Metals and Nonmetals

Metals

Nonmetals

Have a shiny luster; various colors,

although most are silver
Solid are malleable and ductile
Good conductors of heat and
electricity
Most metal oxides are ionic solid
that are basic
Tend to form cations in aqueous
solution

Do not have a luster, various colors

Solid are usually brittle; some are
hard and some are soft
Poor conductors of heat and
electricity
Most nonmetallic oxides are
molecular substances that form
acidic solution
Tend to form anions or oxyanions in
aqueous solution

Metals
All are solid at room temperature except mercury (melting point = 39oC), which is a liquid. Two melt at slightly above room
temperature cesium at 28,4oC and Gallium at 29,8oC. At the other
extreme, many metals melt at very high temperatures. Example,
chromium melt at 1900oC.
Metal tend to have low ionization energies and are consequently
oxidized (lose electron) when undergo chemical reaction
The charges of the alkali metals are always +1 and those of the
alkaline earth metals are 2+ in their compounds.
One of the characteristic features of the transition metals is their
ability to form more than one positive ion. Ex. Fe2+ and Fe3+
Compounds of metals with nonmetals tend to be ionic substances.
Ex. Most metal oxides and halides are ionic solids.
2Ni(s) + O2(g) 2NiO(s)
Most metal oxides are basic oxides; those that dissolve in water
react to form metal hydroxides, as in the following examples

 Metal oxide + water metal hydroxide

Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq)
Metal oxides also demonstrate their basicity by the
reacting with acids to form salts and water :
Metal oxide + acid salt + water
MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
NiO(s) + H2SO4(aq) NiSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Exercise