SSK5204 Chapter 4:

Properties of Regular Languages

Dr. Nor Fazlida Mohd Sani, Dept. of Computer Science,
Fac. of Computer Science and Information Technology, UPM.

Closure properties

Example

The language L of strings that end in 101 is regular

(0+1)*101

How about the language L of strings that do not end

in 101?

Example

Hint: w does not end in 101 if and only if it ends in:

000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 110 or 111

or it has length 0, 1, or 2

So L can be described by the regular expression

(0+1)*(000+001+010+010+100+110+111)
+ e + (0 + 1) + (0 + 1)(0 + 1)

Complement

The complement L of a language L is the set of all

strings that are not in L

Examples (S = {0, 1})

L1 = all strings that end in 101

L1 = all strings that do not end in 101
= all strings end in 000, , 111 or have length 0, 1, or 2
L2 = 1* = {e, 1, 11, 111, }
L2 = all strings that contain at least one 0
= (0 + 1)*0(0 + 1)*

Example

The language L of strings that contain 101 is regular

(0+1)*101(0+1)*

How about the language L of strings that do not

contain 101?

You can write a regular expression,

but it is a lot of work!

Closure under complement

If L is a regular language, so is L.

To argue this, we can use any of the equivalent

definitions for regular languages:
regular
expression

NFA

DFA

The DFA definition will be most convenient

We assume L has a DFA, and show L also has a DFA

Arguing closure under complement

Suppose L is regular, then it has a DFA M

accepts L

Now consider the DFA M with the accepting and

rejecting states of M reversed
accepts strings not in L
this is exactly L

Food for thought

Can we do the same thing with an NFA?

NO!

0, 1
q0

q1

q2

(0+1)*10

q1

q2

(0+1)*

0, 1
q0

Intersection

The intersection L L is the set of strings that are in

both L and L

Examples:

L = (0 + 1)*11

L = 1*

L L = 1*11

L = (0 + 1)*10

L = 1*

L L =

If L, L are regular, is L L also regular?

10

Closure under intersection

If L and L are regular languages, so is L
L.
To argue this, we can use any of the equivalent
definitions for regular languages:
regular
expression

NFA

DFA

Suppose L and L have DFAs, call them M and M

Goal: Construct a DFA (or NFA) for L L
11

An example
1

M
r0

1
0

r1

s0

L = even number of 0s
r0, s0

1
1

s1

L = odd number of 1s
1
1

r1, s0

r0, s1

0
1
1

r1, s1

L L = even number of 0s and odd number of 1s

12

Closure under intersection

states

M and M

DFA for L L

Q = {r1, ..., rn}

Q = {s1, ..., sn}

Q Q = {(r1, s1), (r1, s2), ...,

(r2, s1), ..., (rn, sn)}

start state ri for M

sj for M

(ri, sj)

accepting F for M
F for M
states

F F = {(ri, sj): ri F, sj F}

Whenever M is in state ri and M is in state sj,

the DFA for L L will be in state (ri, sj)
13

Closure under intersection

DFA for L L

M and M
transitions

ri

si

14

a
a

rj

in M

sj

in M

ri, si

rj, sj

Reversal

The reversal wR of a string w is w written backwards

w = cave

wR = evac

The reversal LR of a language L is the language

obtained by reversing all its strings
L = {cat, dog}

15

LR = {tac, god}

Reversal of regular languages

L = all strings that end in 101 is regular

(0+1)*101

How about LR?

This is the language of all strings beginning in 101
Yes, because it is represented by

101(0+1)*

16

Closure under reversal

If L is a regular language, so is LR.

How do we argue?
regular
expression

17

NFA

DFA

Arguing closure under reversal

Take a regular expression E for L

We will show how to reverse E

A regular expression can be of the following types:

18

The special symbols and e

Alphabet symbols like a, b
The union, concatenation, or star of simpler expressions

Proof of closure under reversal

regular expression E

reversal ER

a (alphabet symbol)

E1 + E2

E1R + E2R

E1E2

E2RE1R

E1*

(E1R)*

19

A question
LDUP = {ww: w L}

Ex. L = {cat, dog}

LDUP = {catcat, dogdog}

If L is regular, is LDUP also regular?

regular
expression

20

NFA

DFA

A question

Lets try with regular expression:

LDUP

L = {a, b}

= LL

LDUP = {aa, bb}

LL = {aa, ab, ba, bb}

Lets try with NFA:

q0

21

NFA for L

NFA for L

q1

An example
L = 0*1 is regular
LDUP = {1, 01, 001, 0001, ...}
LDUP = {11, 0101, 001001, 00010001, ...}
= {0n10n1: n 0}

Lets try to design an NFA for LDUP

22

An example
0

01

001

0001

LDUP = {11, 0101, 001001, 00010001, ...}

= {0n10n1: n 0}
23

Non-regular languages

24

A non-regular language

An example

L = {0n1n: n 0} is not regular.

We reason by contradiction:

25

Suppose we have managed to construct a DFA M for L

We argue something must be wrong with this DFA
In particular, M must accept some strings outside L

A non-regular language
imaginary DFA for L with n states

What happens when we run M on input x = 0n+11n+1?

26

M better accept, because x L

A non-regular language
0

M
0
0r1n+1

What happens when we run M on input x = 0n+11n+1?

27

M better accept, because x L

But since M has n states, it must revisit at least one of its
states while reading 0n+1

Pigeonhole principle
Suppose you are tossing n + 1 balls into n
bins. Then two balls end up in the same bin.

Here, balls are 0s, bins are states:

If you have a DFA with n states and it reads

n + 1 consecutive 0s, then it must end up in
the same state twice.

28

A non-regular language
0

M
0
0r1n+1

What happens when we run M on input x = 0n+11n+1?

29

M better accept, because x L2

But since M has n states, it must revisit at least one of its
states while reading 0n+1
But then the DFA must contain a loop with 0s

A non-regular language
0

M
0
0r1n+1

The DFA will then also accept strings that go around

the loop multiple times
But such strings have more 0s than 1s, so they are
not in L2!

30

General method for showing non-regularity

Every regular language L has a property:

an

a1

ak

ak+1 an-1
an+1am

For every sufficiently long input z in L, there is a

middle part in z that, even if repeated any number
of times, keeps the input inside L

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Pumping lemma for regular languages

Pumping lemma: For every regular language L

There exists a number n such that for every

string z in L, we can write z = u v w where
|uv| n
|v| 1
For every i 0, the string u vi w is in L.

32

Arguing non-regularity

If L is regular, then:

There exists n such that for every z in L, we

can write z = u v w where |uv| n, |v| 1
and
For every i 0, the string u vi w is in L.

So to prove L is not regular, it is enough to show:

For every n there exists z in L, such that for

every way of writing z = u v w where
|uv| n and |v| 1, the string u vi w is not
in L for some i 0.
33

Proving non regularity

For every n there exists z in L, such that for
every way of writing z = u v w where
|uv| n and |v| 1, the string u vi w is not
in L for some i 0.

This is a game between you and an imagined

adversary
adversary
1 choose n
2 write z = uvw (|uv| n,|v| 1)

34

you
choose z L
choose i
you win if uviw L

Arguing non-regularity

You need to give a strategy that, regardless of what

the adversary does, always wins you the game
adversary
1 choose n
2 write z = uvw (|uv| n,|v| 1)

35

you
choose z L
choose i
you win if uviw L

Example
adversary

you

1 choose n
2 write z = uvw (|uv| n,|v| 1)

choose z L
choose i
you win if uviw L

L = {0n1n: n 0}
adversary

you
z = 0 n 1n
i=2

1 choose

write z = uvw
2 n
000000000000000111111111111111

0000000000000000000111111111111111

36

uv2w = 0n+k1n L

Example
LDUP = {0n10n1: n 0}
adversary

you
z = 0n10n1
i=2

1 choose

write z = uvw
2 n

uv2w = 0n+k10n1 L
000000000000001000000000000001

0000000000000000001000000000000001

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Which of these are regular?

L1 = {x: x has same number of 0s and 1s}
L2 = {x: x = 0n1m, n > m 0}
L3 = {x: x has same number of patterns 01 and 10}
L4 = {x: x has same number of patterns 01 and 10}
L5 = {x: x has different number of 0s and 1s}

38

S = {0, 1}

Example
L1 = {x: x has same number of 0s and 1s}
adversary

you

z = 0 n 1n
i=2

1 choose

write z = uvw
2 n

uv2w = 0n+k1n L3
00000000000000011111111111111
v
w
1 u
0000000000000000000111111111111111

39

Example
L2 = {x: x = 0m1n, m > n 0}
adversary

you

z = 0n+11n
i=0

1 choose

write z = uvw
2 n

uv0w
000000000000000111111111111111

00000000000111111111111111

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= 0j+l1n+1 L2

Example
L3 = {x: x has same number of 01s and 11s}
adversary

you

1 choose

z = (01)n(11)n

nn = 1

z = 0111 L4
has too many 11s

What we have in mind:

n=1
n=2
n=3
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z = 011
z = 010111
z = 010101111

z = (01)n1n
has n 01s and n 11s

Example
L3 = {x: x has same number of 01s and 11s}
adversary

you win!

z = (01)n1n
i=0

1 choose

write z = uvw
2 n

010101010101010111111111

Taking out v will kill

at least one 01,
but it does not kill any 11s

010101010101010111111111

so uv0w L3

010101010101010111111111

or
or
42

u v

w
w

Example
L4 = {x: x has same number of 01s and 10s}
adversary

you

z = (01)n(10)n

1 choose

43

n=1
n=2

z = 0110
z = 01011010

n=3

z = 010101101010

Example
L4 = {x: x has same number of 01s and 10s}

is regular!
adversary

you

z = (01)n(10)n
i = 20

1 choose

write z = uvw
2 n

010101101010

u v

01010101101010

u v v

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5 01 patterns
5 10 patterns

6 01 patterns
6 10 patterns

0101101010

4 01 patterns
4 10 patterns

Example
1
1

r0

q0

s0

1
0

one more 10

one more 01

r1

s1

L4 = {x: x has same number of 01s and 10s}

45

Example
L4 = {x: x has different number of 0s than 1s}
adversary
1 choose

you

z=?

there is an easier way!

L1 = {x: x has same number of 0s and 1s} = L4

If L4 is regular, then L1 = L4 is also regular
But L1 is not regular, so L4 cannot be regular
46

DFA minimization

47

Example

Construct a DFA over alphabet {0, 1} that accepts

those strings that end in 111

Isnt there a smaller one?

48

Smaller DFA

0
q0

1
0

q1

q2

Can we do it with 3 states?

49

q3

Even smaller DFA?

Suppose we had a 3 state DFA M for L

lets imagine what happens when:

inputs:
e, 1, 11, 111

By the pigeonhole principle, on two of these inputs M

ends in the same state
50

Pigeonhole principle
Suppose you are tossing n + 1 balls into n
bins, and Then two balls end up in the
same bin.

Here, balls are inputs, bins are states:

If you have a DFA with n states and you run

it on n + 1 inputs, then two of them end up in
same state.
51

A smaller DFA

Suppose M ends up in the same state after reading

inputs x = 1 and y = 11
inputs:
e, 1, 11, 111

11, 111
ends in 111

Then after reading one more 1

The state of x1 = 11 should be rejecting

The state of y1 = 111 should be accepting

but they are both the same state!

52

1, 11

A smaller DFA

Suppose M ends up in the same state after reading

inputs x = e and y = 1
inputs:
e, 1, 11, 111

11, 111
ends in 111

Then after reading 11

The state of x1 = 11 should be rejecting

The state of y1 = 111 should be accepting

but they are both the same state!

53

e, 1

No smaller DFA!

After looking at all possible pairs for x, y, x y

(e, 1)

(e, 11)

(1, 11)

(e, 111)

(1, 111)

we conclude that

There is no DFA with 3 states for L

So, this DFA is minimal

0
q0

1
0

q1
0
0

54

q2

q3

(11, 111)

DFA minimization

We will show how to turn any DFA for L into

the minimal DFA for L
55

Minimal DFAs and distinguishable states

First, we have to understand minimal DFAs:

reject

accept

0
q0

1
0

q1

q2

q3

0
0

minimal DFA

56

every pair of
states is
distinguishable

Distinguishable states

Two states q and q are distinguishable if

q

w1

w2

wk-1

wk

w1

w2

wk-1

wk

on the same continuation string w1w2...wk, one

accepts, but the other rejects

57

Examples of distinguishable states

0
q0

q1
0

(q0, q1)

distinguishable by 01

(q0, q2)

distinguishable by 1

(q0, q3)

distinguishable by e

(q1, q2)

distinguishable by 1

(q1, q3)

distinguishable by e

(q2, q3)

distinguishable by e

58

1
0

q2

q3

DFA is minimal

Examples of distinguishable states

0
q0

q3

(q0, q3)

distinguishable by e

(q1, q3)

distinguishable by e

(q2, q3)

distinguishable by e

(q1, q2)

distinguishable by 0

(q0, q2)

distinguishable by 0

(q0, q1)

indistinguishable

59

0
q01

1
0, 1

q2
0, 1

1
1
0, 1

0, 1

q1

q2

q3

indistinguishable
pairs can be merged

Examples of distinguishable states

0
q0

0, 1

q2
q01

1
q1

0, 1

q3

0, 1

(q0, q2)

distinguishable by e

(q1, q2)

distinguishable by e

(q0, q3)

distinguishable by e

(q1, q3)

distinguishable by e

(q0, q1)

indistinguishable

(q2, q3)

indistinguishable

60

0, 1

0, 1

q23

Finding (in)distinguishable states

Rule 1:

Rule 2:

q1

q1

a
q2

Rule 3:
61

q2

If q is accepting and q is
rejecting
Mark (q, q) as distinguishable
(x)
If (q1, q1) are marked,
Mark (q2, q2) as distinguishable
(x)
Unmarked pairs are
indistinguishable
Merge them into groups

Example of DFA minimization

0
0
0

q0

qe
1

0
q1

q0

q00
q01
1

q10

0
0
0

q11

q00
q01
q10
q11

62

q1

qe q0 q1 q00 q01 q10

Example of DFA minimization

0
0
0

q0

qe
1

0
q1

q0

q00
q01
1

q10

q1

1
0
0
0

q11

q00
q01
q10
q11

x x x x x x
qe q0 q1 q00 q01 q10

q11 is distinguishable from all other states

63

Example of DFA minimization

0
0
0

q0

qe
1

0
q1

q0

q00
q01
1

q10

q1

1
0
0
0

q11

q00
q01
q10
q11

0 1

x x x x x x
qe q0 q1 q00 q01 q10

Look at pair qe, q0

Neither (q0, q00) nor (q1, q01) are distinguishable
64

Example of DFA minimization

0
0
0

q0

qe
1

0
q1

q0

q00
q01
1

q10

q1

1
0
0
0

q11

Look at pair qe, q1

(q1, q11) is distinguishable
65

q00
q01

0 1

q10
q11

x x x x x x
qe q0 q1 q00 q01 q10

Example of DFA minimization

0
0
0

q0

qe
1

0
q1

q0

q00
q01
1

q10

q1

1
0
0
0

q11

q00

q01

x x

q10

x
x
x x x x x x

q11
1

x x
x

qe q0 q1 q00 q01 q10

After going thru the whole table once

Now we make another pass

66

Example of DFA minimization

0
0
0

q0

qe
1

0
q1

q0

q00
q01
1

q10

q1

1
0
0
0

q11

q00
q01
q10
q11

x x0 1
x
x x
x
x
x
x x x x x x
qe q0 q1 q00 q01 q10

Look at pair qe, q0

Neither (q1, q00) nor (q1, q01) are distinguishable
67

Example of DFA minimization

0
0
0

q0

qe
1

0
q1

q0

q00
q01
1

q10

q1

1
0
0
0

q11

q00

1 x

q01

x x

q10

x
x
x x x x x x

q11
1

x x
x

qe q0 q1 q00 q01 q10

Look at pair qe, q00

Neither (q0, q00) nor (q1, q01) are distinguishable
68

Example of DFA minimization

0
0
0

q0

qe
1

0
q1

q0

q00
q01
1

q10

q1

1
0
0
0

q11

q00

q01

x x

q10

x
x
x x x x x x

q11
1

x x
x

qe q0 q1 q00 q01 q10

In the second pass, nothing changes

So we are ready to apply Rule 3

69

Example of DFA minimization

q00
q0
q01

qe

q10
q1
q11

q0
q1

x x

q00

q01

x x

q10

x
x
x x x x x x

q11

qe q0 q1 q00 q01 q10

Merge unmarked pairs into groups

70

Example of DFA minimization

q00
q0

q01

qe

q10
q1
q11

B
C

q0
q1
q00
q01
q10
q11

A
x
A
x
A
x

x
A
x
A
x

x
B x
x A x
x x x x

qe q0 q1 q00 q01 q10

Merge unmarked pairs into groups

71

Example of DFA minimization

0
0
0

q0

qe
1

0
q1

q0

q00
q01
1

q10

q1

1
0

q01

q00

q10

q11

q11

A
x
A
x
A
x

x
A
x
A
x

x
B x
x A x
x x x x

qe q0 q1 q00 q01 q10

minimized DFA:

qA

1
0

qB
0

72

qC

Example of DFA minimization

0
qA

1
0

qB

qC

How do we know this DFA is minimal?

qB

Answer: All pairs are distinguishable

qC

1
e e
qA qB

73