Chemical Signals in Animals:

Endocrine System and Hormonal Control

Endocrine vs. Nervous

The nervous system brings about
immediate responses, but the endocrine
system is slower acting and regulates
processes that occur over days or even
months.

Hormones
Endocrine systems exert control through the
use of hormones.
Hormones are chemical messengers produced
by ductless glands in one part of the body which
travel through the bloodstream and exert their
influence in another part of the body.

Hormones
Hormones are secreted into the bloodstream
and regulate whole body processes like
growth, reproduction, complex behaviors
including courtship and migration.
Hormones influence the metabolism of their
target cells by binding to receptor proteins
within the cell or on the surface of the cell.

Exocrine vs. Endocrine

Exocrine systems have ducts used for
transport of substances directly into the
body cavities: salivary glands
Endocrine systems are ductless and
secrete hormones directly into body
fluids: pituitary gland

Hormones
The endocrine and the nervous systems are
related
1) structurally
2) chemically
3) functionally
simultaneously maintaining homeostasis,
physiology and other body processes.

Hormones
Neurosecretory cells: specialized nerve
cells that secrete hormones located
within endocrine organs and tissues.

Hormones
Several chemicals serve as both
neurotransmitters and hormones.
Epinephrine, produced by the adrenal
medulla, acts as the fight or flight
hormone and a neurotransmitter.

Control
Positive and Negative Feedback regulate
mechanisms of both systems
Positive feed back: output intensifies
and increases the likelihood of a
response
Mammal milk production and release

Control:
- Antagonistic hormones work in
opposition to one other.
- Insulin and glucagon

Hormonal Control
In Hydra, one hormone stimulates growth and
budding while inhibiting sexual reproduction.
Invertebrates exhibit a diversity of hormones
which function in
1) homeostasis,
2)reproduction,
3)development, and
4)behavior.

Hormonal Control
Chemical signals operate at virtually all levels of
organization:
Local regulators
Intracellular
Cell to cell

Tissue to tissue regulators

Organ to organ regulators
Organism to organism (pheromones)

Hormonal Control
Local regulators affect neighboring target cells
Histamine -- immune and regulatory responses
Interleukins immune response
Growth factors peptides and proteins that regulate
the behavior of cells in growing and developing
tissues
Prostaglandins modified fatty acids released into
interstitial fluid

Hormonal Control
Binding of a chemical signal to a specific
receptor protein triggers chemical events in the
target cell that result in a change in that cell.
The response to a chemical signal depends on
the number and affinity of the receptor proteins.

Chemical Signals

Chemical signals often bind to a specific

protein receptor on the plasma membrane of
the target cell

Because of their chemical nature, most signal

molecules (peptides, proteins, glycoproteins)
are unable to diffuse through the plasma
membrane

Chemical Signals

The binding of the signal molecule

to a plasma membrane receptor
initiates a signal transduction
pathway, a series of events that
converts the signal into a specific
cellular response.

Chemical Signals

A specific example is the binding on the

polypeptide hormone insulin to the
insulin receptor:
Insulin binding initiates a chain of events
that accounts for the blood sugar
lowering effects of insulin.

Vertebrate Endocrine System

Coordinates:
1)metabolism,
2)growth,
3)development, and
4)reproduction.

Major Endocrine Organs

Functions of Vertebrate Hormones

Some hormones have a single action

while other have multiple functions

Tropic hormones act on other

endocrine glands

Functions of Vertebrate Hormones:

Functions of Vertebrate Hormones:

Hypothalamus

Region of the lower brain

Receives information from nerves
throughout the body and brain
Initiates endocrine signals appropriate to
the environmental conditions
Regulates the Pituitary Gland

Pituitary Gland

- Located at the base of the hypothalamus

-Two lobes: anterior and posterior;
numerous functions

Anterior Pituitary Gland

Anterior Pituitary Gland

Produces many different hormones

Regulated by factors of the hypothalamus
Four are tropic hormones that stimulate
other endocrine glands to synthesize and
release their hormones: TSH, ACTH, FSH,
LH

Anterior Pituitary Gland

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Stimulates ovulation and corpus luteum
formation in females
Stimulates spermatogenesis in males

Anterior Pituitary Gland

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Tropic hormone that affects the gonads
In males, necessary for spermatogenesis
In females, it stimulates ovarian follicle
growth

Anterior Pituitary Gland

Growth Hormone (GH)

Promotes growth directly
Stimulates production of
growth factors

Anterior Pituitary Gland

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Tropic hormone that stimulates the
thyroid gland to produce and secrete its
own hormone

Anterior Pituitary Gland

Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) stimulates

the adrenal cortex to produce and secrete its
steroid hormones
Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
regulates the activity of pigment-containing
skin cells
Endorphins inhibit pain perception

Posterior Pituitary Gland

Posterior Pituitary Gland

Synthesized in hypothalamus
Secreted from posterior pituitary
Oxytocin induces uterine muscle
contraction; induces lactation
Antidiuretic Hormone acts on kidneys to
increase water retention thus reducing
urine volume

Pineal Gland
Small mass near the center of the brain
Produces melatonin
modified amino acid that modulates skin
pigmentation
secreted only at night; larger amounts secreted in
winter
Involved in regulation of biorhythms

Thyroid hormones function in:

1) development
2) bioenergetics
3) homeostasis

Thyroid is on the ventral side of the

trachea.
plays a major role in vertebrate
development: participates in embryonic
development
control metamorphosis in amphibians

Thyroid gland maintains homeostasis in

mammals including:

blood pressure
heart rate
muscle tone
digestion
reproductive functions
rate of O2 consumption and
metabolism (increases)

Serious metabolic disorders result from

deficiency or excess of thyroid hormones.

Hyperthyroidism - high body temperature,
sweating, weight loss, irritability, high blood
pressure

Hypothyroidism can cause cretinism in

infants and weight gain, lethargy, and coldintolerance in adults

Goiter - enlarged thyroid caused by a deficiency

in iodine

Thyroid hormone secretion is regulated by

hypothalamus and pituitary.

Negative Feedback System.

Hypothalamus secretes TRH
Anterior Pituitary stimulated to produce
TSH
TSH binds to receptors and T3 and T4
High levels of T3, T4, and TSH inhibit TRH

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

balances blood calcium

needs vitamin D to function

Pancreas Endocrine Tissues

Islets of Langerhans:
Alpha cells secrete glucagon
Beta cells secrete insulin
antagonistic hormones that
regulate blood glucose

If glucose homeostasis is unbalanced:

Type I diabetes mellitus (insulindependent diabetes)

Type II diabetes (non-insulin-dependent
diabetes)
Both types untreated will result in high
blood sugar:
Kidneys excrete glucose
More water is excreted
Fat is the major source of fuel for cell
respiration.

Adrenal Glands:
located on top of kidneys
Adrenal medula synthesizes
catecholamines:
epinephrine
norepinephrine

Glucose is mobilized
Heart rate is increased
Bronchioles dilate

Adrenal Glands:
Adrenal cortex synthesizes and secretes

corticosteroids as directed by ACTH from the anterior

pituitary
Mineralocorticoids affect salt and water balance
Aldosterone stimulates kidney cells to reabsorb
sodium ions and water
Glucocorticoids promote glucose synthesis from
noncarbohydrate substances such as proteins

Stress and The Adrenal Glands

Steroids
Androgens: male sex hormones
Testosterone:
Stimulate the development and maintenance
of male reproductive systems
responsible for secondary male sex
characteristics

Steroids
Estrogens: female sex hormones
Maintain the female reproductive system
responsible for secondary sex characteristics

Progestins (Progesterone)
Preparation and maintainace of uterus for
reproduction

Gonadotropins from anterior pituitary (FSH and

LH) control the synthesis of both androgens and
estrogens