MEASUREMENTS AND

INSTRUMENTATION
EC2351

Prepared
By
JhansiRani.R AP/ECE

UNIT 1

BASIC MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS

Measurement systems
Static and dynamic characteristics
Units and standards of measurements
Error analysis
Moving coil meters
Moving iron meters
Multimeters
Bridge measurements

Maxwell
Hay
Schering
Anderson
Wien bridge.
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SIGNIFICANCE OF MEASUREMENT
Importance

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE

of Measurement is simply and

eloquently expressed in the following statement
of famous physicist Lord Kelvin:
I often say that when you can measure what
you are speaking about and can express it in
numbers, you know something about it; when
you cannot express in it numbers your
knowledge is of meager and unsatisfactory
kind

INTRODUCTION

Measurement means, to monitor a process or a operation

and using an instrument, express the parameter, quantity
or a variable in terms of meaningful numbers.

Measurement of a given parameter or quantity is the act

or result of a quantitative comparison between a
predefined standard and an unknown quantity to be
measured.

There are 2 basic requirements:

The comparison standard is accurately defined and
commonly accepted , and
The procedure and the instrument used for obtaining the
comparison must be provable.

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EVOLUTION OF INSTRUMENTS.
a)
b)

c)

Mechanical
Electrical
Electronic Instruments.
MECHANICAL:

These instruments are very reliable for static

and stable conditions. But their disadvantage is
that they are unable to respond rapidly to
measurements of dynamic and transient
conditions.

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CONTD
ELECTRICAL:
It is faster than mechanical, indicating the output are
rapid than mechanical methods. But it depends on the
mechanical movement of the meters. The response is 0.5
to 24 seconds.

ELECTRONIC:
It is more reliable than other system. It uses
semiconductor devices and weak signal can also be
detected.

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Measuring instrument:
It is defined as the device for determining the value or
magnitude of a quantity or variable.

Electronic measurement:

It is the one which is based on electronic or electrical principles

for its measurement function.

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ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENT

Most of the quantities can be converted by transducers
into the electrical or electronic signals.
Electronic signals can be amplified, filtered, multiplexed,
sampled and measured.
Measured signals can be transmitted over long distance
through cables or radio links, without any loss of
information.
Many measurements can be done simultaneously or in
rapid succession.
Electronic circuits can measure the events of very short
duration
Higher sensitivity, low power consumption and a higher
degree of reliability are the important features of
electronic instruments and measurements.

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FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT

Data Storage
&playback
element

Primary
Sensing
element

Variable
Conversion
element

Variable
manipulation
element

Data
Transmission
element

observer
Data
presentation
element

Quantity
To be measured

Data conditioning element

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE

Primary Sensing Element:

An element of an instrument which makes first
contact with the quantity to be measured. In most cases a
Transducer follows primary sensing element which
converts the measurand into a corresponding electrical
signal.

Variable Conversion Element:

output of the primary sensing element is in electrical
form such as Voltage, Frequency.such an o/pt may not
be suitable for the actual measurement system. (Ex: A/D
converter)

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Variable Manipulation Element:

The level of the o/pt from the previous stage may not
be enough to drive the next stage. Thus variable
manipulation element manipulates the signal, preserving
the original nature of the signal.

Data Transmission Element:

When the elements of the system are physically
separated, it is necessary to transmit the data from one
stage to other. This is achieved by the data transmission
element.

Data Presentation Element:

The data is monitored, for analyzing purpose using data
presentation element.(Ex: Visual display)
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EXAMPLE

Moving coil senses current

Magnets & coil convert current in coil to force
Force is transmitted to pointer through mechanical links
Pointer and scale presents the current value

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AMMETER

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PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

Static characteristics: The set of criteria defined for the

instruments, which are used to measure the quantities
which are slowly varying with time or mostly constant, ie.,
do not vary with time is called static characteristics

Dynamic characteristics: when the quantity under

measurement changes rapidly with time, it is necessary
to study the dynamic relations existing b/w i/pt and o/pt
which is expressed as differential equations

The set of criteria defined based on such dynamic

differential equation is called dynamic characteristics

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CALIBRATION

Calibration is the process of making an adjustment

or making a scale so that the reading of an
instrument agree with the accepted and certified
standard.

Note: if the device is repaired, aged or modified

then recalibration is carried out.

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STATIC CHARACTERSTICS

Accuracy
Precision
Resolution
Error
Sensitivity
Threshold
Reproducibility
Zero drift
Stability
Linearity

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ACCURACY:
DEGREE OF CLOSENESS WHICH THE INSTRUMENT READING
APPROACHES THE TRUE VALUE OF THE QUANTITY TO BE MEASURED. IT
INDICATES THE ABILITY OF AN INSTRUMENT TO INDICATE TRUE VALUE OF
THE QUANTITY.

A) ACCURACY AS % OF FULL SCALE READING:

IF THE INSTRUMENT HAVE UNIFORM SCALE, THEN ACCURACY IS EXPRESSED AS
% OF FULL SCALE READING.
ACCURACY IS 0.1% FOR FULL SCALE OF 50 UNITS MEANS 0.05 UNITS ERROR
IS PRESENT IN ANY MEASUREMENT.
ACCURACY IS 0.2% FOR FULL SCALE OF 25 UNITS MEANS 0.05 UNITS ERROR

THUS AS READING DECREASES ERROR IS MORE AND LEADS

MISLEADING.

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B) ACCURACY AS % OF TRUE VALUE:

Best method for specifying accuracy. It is specified in terms of

true value of the quantity being measured. Eg: 0.1% of true
value.
As the reading gets smaller error also gets reduced. Hence
accuracy is better.

C) Accuracy as % of scale span:

Maximum point on scale -Minimum point on scale is scale

span.
For range 25-225,
Scale span is 200
If accuracy is 0.2% of span then, error is 0.4 units in any
measurement.

D) Point Accuracy

It is specified at only one point of scale.

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PRECISION:
It

is the measure of consistency or repeatability

of measurement.
It denotes the closeness with which individual
measurements are departed or distributed about
the average of numbers of measured values.
High precision may not have high accurate

Types:
conformity
Number of significant figures.

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Conformity:
Error created due to limitation of scale reading is a
precision error.
Ex: resistor of value 2385692 is read as 2.4M.

Significant figures:
Precision is obtained from number of significant figures.
Ex: 110 ohms can be specified as 109 or 111 thus 3
significant figures.
If it is specified as 110.0 then it may be 110.1 or 109.9
Thus there are 4 significant figures.
Greater the significant figure greater is the precision.
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Error:
The algebraic difference between the indicated value
and the true value of the quantity to be measured is called
an error.
Error of 1 ut is negligible when measure in order of 1000 ut
Error of 1 ut is significant when measure in order of 5 ut
e = At Am , where
e error (or) absolute error
Am measured value of quantity
At true value of quantity
Note: instead of specifying absolute error, the relative or
percentage of error is specified.
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Relative error:

absolute error
True value

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Sensitivity:
The ratio of the change in output of an instrument to
a change in the value of the quantity to be measured.

Note: if the calibration curve is linear, then sensitivity of the

instrument is the slope of the calibration curve.

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R.JhansiRani AP/ECE

For manufactures

Reciprocal of sensitivity is called inverse sensitivity or

deflection factor.
unit: sensitivity mm/A, mm/, counts/V etc;
Deflection meter - A/mm, /mm, V/counts etc;
Sensitivity should be high, to achieve this the range of the
instrument should not exceed the value to be measured.

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Resolution means smallest measurable input change.

Threshold:
If the i/pt is slowly varied from zero, the o/pt does not change
until some minimum value of the i/pt is exceeded. This minimum
value of the i/pt is called threshold.

Threshold is the smallest measurable i/pt.

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LINEARITY
THE CLOSENESS TO WHICH A CURVE APPROXIMATES A
STRAIGHT LINE.

DEFINITION: IT IS DEFINED AS THE MAXIMUM DEVIATION OF THE ACTUAL

CALIBRATION CURVE (O/PT) FROM THE IDEALIZED ST.LINE, EXPRESSED AS
A % OF FULL SCALE READING OR A % OF THE ACTUAL READING.

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 Zero

drift:
The deviation in the instrument output with time
from its zero value, when the variable to be
measured is a constant.

Reproducibility:

It is the degree of closeness with which a given

value may be repeatedly measured.
Reproducibility and repeatability are a
measure of the closeness with which a given i/pt
may be measured again and again.
R.JhansiRani AP/ECE

 Stability:

Ability of an instrument to retain its

performance throughout its specified
operating life and the storage life.
Tolerance:
The maximum allowable error in the
measurement is specified interms of some
value which is called tolerance.
Bias:
The constant error which exists over the full
range of measurement of an instrument is
called bias.
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Hysteresis
If the i/pt to the instrument
is increased from a negative
value, the o/pt also increases :
curve 1
If the curve is decreased
steadily, the o/pt does not
follow the same curve but lags
by certain value: curve 2

Difference b/w two curves is

called HYSTERESIS.
The noncoincidence of loading
and unloading curves

Dead space: Range of i/pt

values were there is no change
in o/pt is called dead space.
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DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
Speed of response
Fidelity
Lag
Dynamic error

STANDARD VARIATIONS IN I/PT ARE

Sudden, instantaneous and finite change in the input.

i/pt -> Au(t)

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Linear change in i/pt. it changes at a constant rate wrt

time.
i/pt -> At u(t)

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i/pt is proportional to the square of the time & hence

represents constant acceleration
i/pt -> At2 u(t)

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It exist only at t=0 & zero otherwise

Area under it is its magnitude and if its unity it is called
delta function (t)

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i/pt which changes in acco9rdance with a sinusoidal

function of constant amplitude. Frequency is the
independent variable in this case.

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Speed of response:
It gives information about how fast the system reacts
to the changes in the input.

Fidelity:
it is defined as the degree to which an instrument indicates the
changes in the measured variable without dynamic error.

Lag:
Delay in the response of a system.
retardation lag: response of the system begins immediately after
a change in the variable has occurred.
time delay: response begins after some time called dead time,
after the application of input.

Dynamic error
Difference between the true value of the variable to be
measured changing with time and the value indicated by
the measurement system assuming zero static error
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UNITS

It is necessary to specify type & magnitude for the

reading. Where unit represents the type of the
physical quantity and reading on the instrument
represents its magnitude

Different system of units are

M.K.S
C.G.S
S.I (system international units)

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UNITS

The S.I system of units is divided into 3 categories

Fundamental units
Supplementary units
Derived units

Fundamental units:
units which are independently chosen and not
dependent on any other units are called fundamental
units or base units
Ex: meter (m), kilogram (Kg), second (s), Ampere (A)

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 Supplementary

units:

Radian for the plane angle: (,)

Plane angle subtended by an arc of a circle equal in
length to the radius of the circle.

Steradian for the solid angle: (s,s)

Angle subtended at the center of the sphere by the
surface whose area is equal to the square of the radius of
the sphere.

Derived

units:

These units are derived from fundamental and

supplementary units
Ex: velocity- m/s, acceleration- m/s2, force- Newton(N)
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R.JhansiRani AP/ECE

MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
A standard of measurement is a physical representation of
a unit of measurement.
A standard means known accurate measure of physical
quantity.
ex: unit of mass: Kg
Kilogram is defined as the mass of cubic decimeter of
water as its temperature of maximum density of 4 degree
Celsius

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TYPES OF STANDARDS
1. International standards
2. Primary standards
3. Secondary standards
4. Working standards

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INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS

These standards are maintained at the international

bureau of weights and measures and are periodically
evaluated and checked by absolute measurements.

These standards are not available for ordinary users for

calibration.

For accuracy they are replaced by absolute units which

are more accurate than international standards.

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PRIMARY STANDARDS

They are maintained at national standard laboratories in

different countries.

These standards represents fundamental units as well as

electrical and mechanical derived units calibrated by
absolute measurements at each national laboratories.

used for calibration and verification of secondary

standards.

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SECONDARY STANDARDS

Since primary standards are not available for outside

users, various industries need some reference.

They are used by measurement and calibration

laboratories and are maintained by the particular industry
to which they belong.

Each industry has its own standards.

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WORKING STANDARDS

These are the basic tools of a measurement laboratory

use to check and calibrate for accuracy.

ex: resistor industry maintains a standard resistor for

checking the values of manufactured resistors.

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ERRORS

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SOURCES OF ERRORS
1. Faulty design of instrument
2. Insufficient knowledge of quantity and
design conditions
3. Improper maintenance of the instrument.
4. Sudden change in the parameter to be
measured.
5. Unskilled operator
6. Effects of environmental conditions.
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TYPES OF ERRORS
static errors are classified as,
1. Gross error
2. Systematic error
3. Random error

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GROSS ERROR: (PERSONAL ERRORS)

Occurs

due to carelessness of human while

reading, recording and calculating results.
Due to incorrect adjustments of instruments.
To

eliminate error:
Take care while reading, recording and
calculating results.
Take 3 or more readings with 3 or more persons.

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE

SYSTEMATIC ERROR
A constant uniform deviation of operation in instruments
known as systematic error.
Due to short comings and characteristics of the material
used in instrument like worn parts, ageing effects etc;

Types:
a) Instrumental error
b) Environmental error
c) Observational error

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INSTRUMENTAL ERROR

shortcomings of instrument:
Due to mechanical structure of the instruments.
Ex: Friction in bearings,
Irregular spring tension,
variation in air gap.

To eliminate error:
1. select proper instrument and select proper
procedure.
2. Identify effect of errors and correct it.
3. Calibrate the instrument.
R.JhansiRani AP/ECE

Misuse

of instruments:

Ex: poor initial adjustments

improper zero setting
using leads of high resistance
Loading

effects:

Ex: connecting a well calibrated voltmeter

across the 2 points of high resistance
circuit.

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ENVIRONMENTAL ERROR
They are due to
temperature changes
pressure changes
thermal e.m.f
stray capacitance
cross capacitance

To eliminate error:
1. proper correction factors given by the manufacturer.
2. make arrangements to keep surrounding constant
like using A.C.
3. sealing the components to avoid dust, humidity.
4. providing magnetic or electrostatic shields.

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OBSERVATIONAL ERROR
errors made by observers
Ex: parallax error while reading a
meter, wrong scale selection
To

eliminate error:
1. use instruments with mirrors.
2. knife edged pointers.
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RANDOM ERROR
Causes of errors which are unknown are
random errors.
Due

to accumulation of large number of

small effects
They cannot be corrected by any method.
use statistical methods to obtain best
approximation of reading.
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ERROR ANALYSIS

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STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Arithmetic mean and median:
mean:

Median:

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Deviation from mean:

Average deviation (mean deviation):

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 Standard

deviation:

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 Variance:

mean square deviation

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