Anthropology is defined as the study of humans, past and

present. This broad subject studies culture, history, politics,

medicine, global health, biology and language, in relation to
humans.
There are 4 different types of Anthropology

a) Sociocultural Anthropology studies social and cultural

diversity. It investigates the values, practices and systems
of different cultures (i.e looks at the practice of Kinship,
Marriage, Religion, Death, Medicine, among European
society, tribal people in African culture, clans in Papa New
Guinea culture etc. )

b) Biological Anthropology Studies the physical and

biological aspects of humans, this looks at human health,
pathology, human evolution and genetics
c) Linguistic Anthropology - Examines the history and
structure of human languages, the relationship between
language and culture, cognitive and biological aspects of
language and media of communication.

d) Archaeology - is the study of the ancient history and

evolution through material remains such as tools,
buildings, and other artefacts that are the residue of
former societiesthrough site excavation.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wuwcqBOOEdE

Theories in Anthropology
The main theories in Anthropology are:

Cultural Relativism
Historical Particularism
Functionalism
Structural Functionalism
Interpretivism
These theories are used to study humans in different

societies and cultures.

Cultural Relativisim
What is cultural relativism?
Cultural relativism is the idea that a persons beliefs and activities must

be understood in local context within a persons own culture.

Cultural relativists claim that all cultures are of equal value.

This principle rejects Ethnocentricism

What is Ethnocentricism?
a) The tendency to view ones own culture as being more superior/better
than another persons culture.
b) To judge the behaviour and beliefs of people through your own
culture/cultural values.

What would a cultural relativist

say about this picture?

Historical Particularism
What is historical particularism?
This theory is closely associate with Anthropologist Franz Boas. Historical particularism
refers to the idea that each culture has its own particular and unique history, so if you
want to study a specific culture you need to look at their cultural, social and
geographical context.

All elements of a culture need to be taken into account when comparing cultures, an
anthropologist cannot pick and choose characteristics
Boas used this theory to argue against cultural evolutionism, cultural evolution was the
idea that culture has developed through stages of savagery, barbarism and civilisation.
Boas stressed the importance of intensive, long-term fieldwork, which included learning
of the language of those you study. Fieldwork systematically collects information on the
cultures around the world. Only then could valid and accurate descriptions be put forth
for a given culture.

What is fieldwork?
The term fieldwork is used to describe the practical work conducted by a researcher in
the natural environment, rather than in a laboratory or office. The practice of fieldwork
can be done in a variety of different settings, such as an urban or virtual environment, a
small tribal community, a museum, library, cultural institution or a business
environment.

Functionalism
What is functionalism?
Functionalists seek to describe the different parts of a society and their relationship
through the organic analogy. In other words, Functionalists looks at the different parts of
society or culture and analyses the function of certain cultural/social practices and
systems.

What is the organic analogy?

The organic analogy looks at the function of the human body. It looks at the several
organs/parts of the human body which work together. For example, an organism is able
to live, reproduce and function through the organized system of its several parts and
organs. Like a biological organism, a society has several practices/systems which work
together. Institutions such as religion, kinship and the economy are the organs and
individuals are the cells in this social organism.
Bronislaw Malinowski suggested that individuals have 3 types of needs and society
satisfies these needs:
1) individual needs - nutrition, reproduction, safety - with society providing food
collecting, marriage, defence
2) instrumental needs - renewal of personnel and charters of behaviour - with society
providing education and social control systems
3) integrative needs - means of intellectual, emotional and pragmatic control of one's
destiny and chance - with society providing magic, religion and science.

What is the function of......

Schools/ Education?

Media?

Religion

Structural Functionalism
What is structural functionalism?
A.R Radcliffe-Brown focused on the function of social structure rather than
biological needs, which is the main concern of Maliowskis functionalism.
Radcliffe-Brown argued that we must study people in terms of social structure.
Within this social structure people have certain social roles.

When Radcliffe-Brown conducted fieldwork in the Andaman Islands, he

examined ceremonial customs of weeping (Kuper, 1996:40). The Andamanese
would exaggerate their weeping at weddings, when they met relatives and
friends after a long time and at peace making ceremonies (Kuper, 1996:40).
Radcliffe-Brown was interested in the social effect these customs had on social
structure. He concluded the custom held a function. The function of weeping
marked cohesion and they were performed when social relations were
interrupted and are [were] about to be renewed (Kuper, 1996:42).
So, when social relations were interrupted, people would come together and

weep because weeping marked social cohesion.

Interpretivism
What is interpretivism?
Clifford Geertz argued that cultural analysis is intrinsically

incomplete. In order to understand culture, ethnographies should give

thick detailed descriptions that are based on interpretations.
What are thick descriptions?
These descriptions are based in part on the interpretations of
informants. Informants are native people who provide the
researcher/anthropologists with information.
What are ethnographies?
The scientific written account of peoples culture (books, academic
journals, diary log).

Key terms & Concepts in

Anthropology
1.World View
Monism (one view) everyday experience is an illusion

philosophical idea to the world view

Platos allegory of the cave

World View
Fundamental conception of the

world which directly effects how

people behave
Cosmology: relations between group
of people, world and cosmos.
Geertz Interpretation of Cultures
(1973)
World view~ intellectual
understanding of world (thought)
Ethos~ emotional appreciation of
world (feeling)
Religious rituals integrate world
view & ethos of a culture: what is
thought remains emotionally
acceptable & what is felt remains
intellectually reasonable.

Monism
Cosmos consists

of one kind of
primal stuff.
There is only one
kind of selfsubsistent real
thing.

Monism
This stuff is either

physical stuff:
physicalism.
OR
World is simply
absolute thought:
absolute idealism.

Dualism
Western philosophy is a dualistic view (Rene Descartes)
E.G Animism

Animism

Nature, the Cosmos

produces living creatures
and therefore is itself an
animated organism
which possesses reason,
emotion and a soul.

Animal totems of clans

(Totem pole marks off
territory for clans)
Gaia (Mother Earth in
Greek)

Anthropological Themes
Witchcraft: Major theme in
anthropological knowledge

Anthropological Approaches
Humanity: the world is

not enough
Material world is
insufficient explanation
The natural realm is not
all that exists
There is also a
supernatural realm

Anthropological Approaches

All human cultures have a spiritual element

Assert causal connections that have no
demonstrable existence in the natural world
Culture is humanitys victory over nature

Anthropological Approaches
Culture imposes

order on chaotic
experiential
reality
All cultures have

rites of passage
rituals

Anthropological Approaches
Rites of passage rituals

structure human
existence
Impose an order over a
fundamentally random
arbitrary events

Anthropological Approaches
Evans-Pritchard classic

examination of
witchcraft
Witchcraft, Oracles
& Magic among the
Azande (1937)
Azande assume all
deaths ultimately due
to witchcraft

Anthropological Approaches
A man sitting under

a grain hut was

killed when hut fell
on him
The Azande
assumed witchcraft
Evans-Pritchard
pointed out
wooden hut was
rotten and simply
collapsed

Anthropological Approaches
Azande replied that any
fool could see rotten hut
caused death
But why did it collapse on
this man?
Witchcraft
Explanation that is was a
chance accident was
stupid
Witchcraft more
satisfying reason

Anthropological Approaches

Witchcraft gives meaning to meaningless events

Provides a reason for why things happen

Anthropological Approaches
Max Marwick Witchcraft & Sorcery (1970)
Functionalist approach
Tied to the land
disputes

Tight knit communities

Settled Neighbour

Anthropological Functionalist approach

applied in historical study of witch-hunts that
terrorized European and North American
women during the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries

Witchcraze
Controversial area

Historians agree that

women were the
primary target (not
everywhere)
Nothing else is agreed
Numbers range from

10,000s to millions

The Burning Times

Misnomer

Feminist historians
have suggested
greatest mass killing
of people by people not
caused by war Anne
Llewellyn Barstow
Gynocide

Witchcraze
First witch trials held

in Germany in 1482
1487 publication of
Malleus Malefic
Arum (The Hammer
of Witches)

The Typical Witch

Anne Llewellyn

Barstow Witchcraze
(1994)
Typical Witch
A licensed & pledged
midwife

 Diana Purkiss The Witch

in History (1996)
The typical witch myth is
simply not true
no evidence that most
accused were midwives &
healers
No evidence that convicted
witches were unmarried
many were women with
young families
Men were not responsible
for all accusations.. most
witches were accused by
women

 Witch story actually re-enforces the idea of women

with nature and men with culture
Renders woman passive, the prone recipient of
male cultivation